Riassunto esame Storia contemporanea, Prof. Patti Manuela, libro consigliato The unsettling of Europe , Bellinger

CHAPTER 9- MIGRATION TO THE UK

Before the 1950s, Britain had its own guest workers, particularly Irish one, who were

expected to work temporarily and then leave, much like guest workers in Germany.

However, in the 1950s and 1960s, migration from the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent

increased, driven by Britain’s colonial ties and Commonwealth membership, which granted

these migrants the right to settle in the UK. Unlike guest workers, many arrived without a

guaranteed job, but they shared a historical connection to Britain and often spoke English.

The arrival of West Indian migrants in 1948 symbolized this migration wave. Despite initial

gestures of welcome, including media coverage and meetings with local officials, migrants

faced racism and social exclusion. Sociologist Sheila Patterson highlighted how West

Indians were viewed as culturally distinct and expected to assimilate.

While West Indians became the focal point of postwar migration debates, there were other

preoccupations about Italian and Irish migrants. Britain actively recruited Italians, and they

made up one-quarter of the foreign labor force. The Ministry of Labour established

emigration centers in Italy to select workers, often for jobs in hospitals, agriculture, or

brickmaking. Many Italians settled in communities such as Bedford, where Italian road signs

appeared, and continued in trades established by earlier migrants, such as the ice-cream

business.

Migration provided economic opportunities, especially for Italian women, who saw it as a

chance to escape restrictive social norms. Migration to Britain in the postwar period

transformed social structures and gender norms. Italian migrants noted how social

expectations changed, particularly regarding women’s independence, as nightlife and

entertainment became more accessible. 27

However, both Italians and Irish faced prejudice, and the discrimination was later

experienced by Commonwealth migrants, like those from the Caribbean. Britain as a

multicultural society, was shaped by colonial legacy, economic demand and racial tension.

Some migrants opened businesses such as cafés, restaurants, and hair salons.

Irish Migration:

Irish migration to Britain had a long history, facilitated by the Common Travel Area after

Ireland’s independence in 1922. Many go away, especially for temporally work. By 1971,

the UK’s Irish-born population had reached nearly 1 million. While they did not face language

barriers, adjusting to British society was still challenging. We can remember the

documentary The Irishmen: which captured the cultural shock experienced by Irish workers

in London.

Many Irish migrants worked in low-wage jobs, such as bricklaying or hospital work, but by

1951, one in four had entered white-collar professions like engineering and medicine. Irish

women found opportunities in nursing, midwifery, and teaching, but they still confronted with

stereotypes and class distinctions. Some migrants saw their stay as temporary, longing for

home even after decades in Britain. Others embraced the economic advantages, preferring

city life over rural isolation. The NHS facilitated holiday visits, allowing Irish nurses to return

home for extended periods. Despite their integration into the workforce, the Irish were seen

as outsiders in British society. Sociologist John Archer Jackson described them as being “in

it, but not of it.” British colonial attitudes toward the Irish persisted, with some officials

expressing concerns about their perceived health risks. Although they were not subjected

to the same racial discrimination as Caribbean migrants, they still stood apart from

mainstream British society.

The 1948 British Nationality Act granted all Commonwealth citizens the right to settle and

work in the UK, reinforcing the idea of Britain as the “Mother Country.” Many West Indian

men found jobs in London Transport or the postal service. Caribbean women, like their Irish

counterparts, entered nursing. Despite economic integration, racial discrimination was

pervasive. Migrants maintained strong ties with their home countries, regularly sending

remittances and often leaving children behind to be raised by relatives. This period of

migration reshaped Britain, highlighting economic necessity, cultural adaptation, and

enduring racial divides.

Family Reunification and the Caribbean Experience: For many Caribbean migrants,

migration was a family strategy rather than an individual journey. Levi Roots’ story illustrates

this well—his parents left Jamaica in 1962 with a plan to work hard, buy a house, and

eventually bring their children to Britain. Years passed before families were reunited, as

children were sent one by one, often experiencing long separations. Many Caribbean

migrants worked in low-paying, physically demanding jobs, such as cleaning, hospital work,

and public transport. While their work ethic was often praised, ‘cheerful workers’, this praise

also served to reinforce the idea that their place in society was conditional on being

hardworking and ‘well-behaved’. 28

South Asian Migration: Migration from the Indian subcontinent followed a similar pattern

of economic necessity and opportunity. These migrants came from diverse backgrounds,

including students, business owners, and laborers. Many Sylheti migrants (from present-day

Bangladesh) entered the restaurant and takeaway sector, while Punjabi Sikhs and Muslims

used their higher education levels to establish small businesses. In places like Newcastle,

Muslim entrepreneurs-built businesses with financial support from family and friends,

forming economic networks.

Anti-Immigration Sentiment:

Despite the legal framework supporting Commonwealth migration, British attitudes often

reflected a hostile and restrictive stance. Critics of immigration argued that Britain was “not

a country of immigration”, despite the clear dependence on migrant’s work. There were like

a double standard, with white migrants were quietly integrated while non-white migrants

faced hostility. Also, Polish workers, though accepted more readily than black workers, were

still seen as outsiders, indicating that even white migrants faced barriers to full inclusion.

One of the most persistent fears surrounding migration was its impact on public services,

particularly the NHS and welfare state. Opponents argued that migrants were draining

resources and contributing to the spread of diseases like tuberculosis (TB). The British

Medical Association described immigrant communities as a “pool of ill-health”, reinforcing

racist stereotypes. The irony, of course, was that migrant nurses from the Caribbean,

Ireland, Hong Kong, and Malaysia were essential to keeping the NHS functioning.

Hostility in the workplace went into open conflict, such as the 1955 strikes in the West

Midlands, where white union officials protested the hiring of an Indian bus conductor.

Race Riots:

Tension of workplaces exploded in the streets. These tensions were about white workers

and black migrants.

-1958 race riots in Nottingham and notting, was a prove of resentments toward black

migrants.

-1959 murder of Cochrane, an Antiguan-born carpenter, on his way to a hospital

appointment in Notting Hill. The police would tell that it was only a robbery gone wrong.

Black activists, however, saw Cochrane’s murder as proof of systematic racism. It revealed

how black British subjects weren’t protected.

The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act marked a turning point in British immigration

policy. It introduced restrictions on entry for Commonwealth citizens, requiring them to obtain

work vouchers before migrating. These vouchers were divided into three categories: those

with specific job offers, those with skills needed in Britain, and those without offers or

particular skills, who would be admitted only if there were no other applicants from the first

two categories. This shift signaled the end of the assumption that Commonwealth citizens

had an automatic right to settle in the UK. Labour opposed the bill, condemning it as

discriminatory and contrary to British values. However, once Labour came to power in 1964,

29

they maintained the restrictions, reflecting the growing consensus that immigration needed

to be controlled. At the same time, the government search to manage the integration of

existing migrants, but resistance from white residents often limited these efforts.

The 1960s saw the rise of civil rights activism in Britain, influenced by movements in the

United States. Figures like Claudia Jones campaigned against racial discrimination and

police brutality, while organizations such as the Campaign Against Racial Discrimination

(CARD) lobbied for legal protections. Their efforts contributed to the passage of the 1965

and 1968 Race Relations Acts, which made discrimination in public places and

employment illegal.

However, racial tensions persisted, with politicians like Powell fueling hostility towards

immigrants. His infamous 1968 “Rivers of Blood” speech warned of violent conflict if

immigration continued unchecked. While condemned by mainstream politicians, Powell’s

rhetoric gained significant public support, especially from the working class, demonstrating

the deep divisions over race and immigration. And blaming migrants for house shortage and

bad public services, instead of seeing these issues as result of economic failure. By the end

of the 1960s, Britain had undergone profound demographic and social changes.

Immigration had transformed cities, created vibrant multicultural communities but also

provoked resistance.

By the late 1960s, immigration policy had shifted decisively towards control and exclusion.

Britain was no longer open to large-scale migration from its former colonies. This period also

witnessed rising racial tensions; particularly as economic downturns fueled resentment

against migrants.

At the same time, cultural representations of migrants in music, film, and television were

challenging stereotypes. West Indian musicians and filmmakers brought new perspectives

into British society. However, these contributions did little to counteract the immigration laws.

By the early 1970s, immigration policy was now more closely with European integration than

with historical ties to former colonies. Britain was turning away from its imperial past and

redefining itself as a European nation-state. However, even as Britain embraced the EEC’s

economic benefits, it resisted the principle of free movement for non-white Commonwealth

citizens, highlighting the racialized nature of migration policy.

-The restrictive immigration policies of the 1960s set the stage for debates over

multiculturalism, national identity, and race relations that continued into the late 20th century.

-High-profile tragedies like the 1981 New Crossfire, in which thirteen black youths died under

suspicious circumstances, underscored the hostile environment they faced. For many,

Britain had not fulfilled the promises of opportunity and equality that had drawn