Riassunto esame Lingua Inglese III, prof. Ranzato, libro consigliato The Cambridge Handbook of linguistic Code Switching, Bullock, Toribio

Riassunto esame lingua inglese III

Docente Ranzato, testo consigliato The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code Switching

Themes in the study of code-switching

What is code-switching? Monolinguals can shift between the linguistic registers and the dialects. We can refer to such a monolingual behavior as style shifting: comportamento dei monolingue di cambiare registro e dialetto.

It is not uncommon for bilinguals to segregate their language, speaking exclusively in one language in certain domains (home, friends) while shifting to another in other contexts (school, work), a bilingual behavior commonly referred to as language shifting: cambiare lingua a seconda del contesto o dominio.

This type of language alternation has been termed Classic CS or alternational CS, but it is most widely known as intra-sentential CS which occurs at clause boundaries. Inizia una frase in una lingua e finirla con un’altra. Inter-sentential switching requires an advanced level of bilingual proficiency.

Muskyen suggests that bilinguals employ three distinct strategies:

• Alternation: where the two-level languages remain relatively separated in an A-B configuration; → Spanish-English sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español. → Swahili-English that’s too much. Sina pesa
• Congruent lexicalization: in which the two languages share a common grammatical structure that can be filled with lexical elements from either language; → Dutch-Sranan wan heri gedeelte de ondro beheer fu gewapande machten (congruent lexicalization)
• Insertion: which involves the embedding of a constituent – usually a word or a phrase – in a nested A-B-A structure → Persian Swedish xob pas falsk-an pesa-â (insertion)

Congruent lexicalization is most prevalent between languages that are closely related typologically. It differs from Classic CS, i.e., intra-sentential CS, for which it is assumed that bilinguals fully maintain both language systems.

Insertion, as distinct from intra-sentential CS, has much in common with lexical borrowing, which does not necessitate bilingual proficiency. CS reflects the skillful manipulation of two language systems for various communicative functions.

Insertional CS can be equated with borrowing, which has been used to describe many different forms, from the transfer of structural features to that of whole clauses. Lexical borrowing normally involves the morphological and phonological integration of a single lexeme. But unassimilated loan words, also called nonce borrowing, can occur spontaneously in the speech of bilinguals. Hence some researchers view borrowing and CS as falling along a continuum.

Loan translation or calques involve the importation of foreign patterns or meanings with the retention of native language morphemes.

• US Chicano Spanish: Escuela alta “high school” (Literally “school high”)
• US French: Etudiant gradué “graduate student” (Literally “student graduated”)

Semantic extensions occur when a word from language A takes on additional meanings modeled by language B.

• US Spanish: Mayor “mayor” (Literally “older”)
• US French: Enregister “register (for a course)” (Literally “check a bag”)

Mixed languages are contact varieties deriving components of their grammatical systems from diverse genetic sources. The general properties of Media Lengua include Quechua morpho-syntax combined with Spanish lexical stems.

• Media Lengua: Unu fabur-ta pidi-nga-bu bini-xu-ni "I come to ask a favor"
• Cf: Quechua: SHuk fabur-ta maña-nga-bu shamu-xu-ni
• Cf: Spanish: Vengo para pedir un favor

CS does not constitute a composite or hybrid system. CS should not be confused with diglossia, which describes a community where languages or language varieties are functionally compartmentalized. Each language form is associated with a social function. In Paraguay, Spanish is used in official and institutional contexts, while Guaraní is relegated to informal ones, where the two languages are in a hierarchical and complementary relationship.

Diglossia is socially imposed. In contrast, CS is understood as an individual phenomenon wherein a speaker chooses when, why, and how to alternate between languages. CS is under the conscious control of the speaker.

Bilingual is a cover term that encompasses speakers who fall along a “bilingual range,” a continuum of linguistic abilities and communicative strategies. Quando un individuo o una comunità linguistica hanno un repertorio formato da due lingue che svolgono uguali funzioni e godono di pari prestigio (meglio definite come repertorio linguistico di bilinguismo sociale).

Symmetrical bilingual: quando una persona ha il controllo “nativo” di 2 o più lingue. Speakers exposed to two languages from birth or early childhood – simultaneous or early bilinguals – and who have maintained the use of their languages throughout their lifespan most closely approximate what is meant by true bilingual. Quando l’acquisizione dei due idiomi avviene nello stesso momento come nel caso di persone che vivono in famiglie dove i due idiomi coesistono e vengono usati parallelamente.

Guest-worker communities give rise to second-generation or heritage bilinguals who, unlike their parents, may be dominant in the majority language. Bilinguismo consecutivo: quando si acquisisce prima la lingua madre e poi la seconda lingua, come le persone che emigrano in paesi con diversa lingua per poi stabilirsi nel paese adottivo.

Second language acquirers, or late bilinguals, are those who have a linguistic system fully in place when their exposure to the second language begins. Naturalistic or folk bilinguals learn a second language without school. For many naturalistic bilinguals, second language learning is a necessity. Elite bilinguals often choose to learn a second language for personal or professional gain.

Due to temporary or permanent lapses in knowledge, learners may switch to the native language, a process referred to as crutching. There is a developmental pattern in the bilingual’s control of the syntax of code-switching, which begins with the mixing of single items from one code into discourse in the other and culminates in the code-changing of even more complex constituents.

Gumperz describes many important functions served by CS. CS is a conscious choice on the part of the speaker, used to mark quotations, emphasis, realignment of speech roles, reiteration, and elaboration.