Riassunto esame Lingua Inglese III, prof. Ranzato, libro consigliato The Cambridge Handbook of linguistic Code Switching, Bullock, Toribio

Paraguay, Spanish is used in official and institutional contexts, and Guaraní is relegated to informal.

In cui le due lingue sono in rapporto gerarchico e complementare.

DIGLOSSIA is socially imposed. In contrast, CS in understood as individual phenomenon wherein a speaker

chosen when, why, and how to alternate between languages.

CS is under the conscious control of the speaker.

BILINGUAL is a cover term that encompasses speakers who fall along a “bilingual range” a continuum of

linguistic abilities and communicative strategies.

Quando un individuo o una comunità linguistica hanno un repertorio formato da due lingue che

svolgono uguali funzioni e godono di pari prestigio (meglio definite come repertorio linguistico di

bilinguismo sociale).

Symmetrical bilingual: quando una persona ha il controllo “nativo” di 2 o più lingue.

Speakers who have been exposed to two languages from birth or early childhood – simultaneous or early

bilinguals- and who have maintained the use of their languages throughout their lifespan most closely

approximate what is meant by true bilingual.

Quando l’acquisizione dei due idiomi avviene nello stesso momento come nel caso di persone che

vivono in famiglie dove I due idiomi coesistono e vengono usati parallelamente.

Guest-worker communities give rise to second generation or heritage bilingual who, unlike their parents,

may be dominant in the majority language.

Bilinguismo consecutive: quando si acquisice prima la lingua madre e pi la seconda lingua, come le

persone che emigrano in paesi con diversa lingua per poi stabilirsi nel paese adottivo.

Second language acquires, or late bilinguals are those who have linguistic system fully in place when their

exposure to the second begins.

Naturalistic or folk bilinguals who learn a second language without school

For many naturalistic bilinguals, second language learning is a necessity.

Elite bilinguals often choose to learn a second language for personal or professional gain.

Due to temporary or permanent lapses in knowledge, learns may switch to the native language, a process

referred to as crutching.

There is a developmental pattern in the bilingual’s control of the syntax of code-switching, which begins

with the mixing of single items from one code into discourse in the other and culminates in the code

changing of even more complex constituents.

Gumperz describes many important functions served by CS. CS is a conscious choice on the part of the

speaker, used to mark quotations, emphasis, realignment of speech roles, reiteration, and elaboration

among others.

For many bilinguals, CS merely represents another way of speaking, that is, some bilinguals code-switch

simply because they can and oftentimes may not be aware that they have done so.

The Tariana in northwest Amazonia CS is considered taboo and those ho engage in it, even accidentally, are

ridiculed.

In Tirana society, CS is only permitted in 2 cases: in direct quotations and in the expression of the speech of

animals and evil spirit in narratives.

Diverse social context give rise to language contact, which, in turn, provides the environment in which CS

can take place. Societal bilingualism arises from various social forces and historical events, including

colonization, invasion and annexation, migration and deportation.

These factors may have different outcomes in terms of languages dominance and linguistic practices

Because social conditions for language contact are malleable, different patterns of bilingual language use

are to be expected.

In sum, the individual and social factors that are implicated in CS are complex and difficult to isolate.

There are three major strands is the study of CS.

1. The structural approach is concerned with what CS can reveal bout language structure at all levels

(lexicon, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantic);

2. The psycholinguistic approach investigates CS to better understand the cognitive mechanisms that

underline (sta alla base) bilingual production, perception and acquisition;

3. The sociolinguistic approach attends to the social factors that promote or inhibit CS and view CS as

affording insights into social constructs such as power and prestige.

The methodologies employed within these various approach are often incompatible. For example,

psycholinguistic studies are most often conducted within laboratory settings, using controlled stimuli, a

methodology foreign to ethnographic studies, where language behaviors must be observes in its natural

context.

Less is known of its phonological implications. An overarching concern in this domain is whether there is an

immediate and complete changeover from the phonetic system of one language to that of the other during

CS.

In sum, the interaction between phonology and CS invites further scrutiny.

Psycholinguistics, researchers have examined the cognitive mechanisms and neuro-anatomical structures

that are implicated in the control of two languages.

Of all the approaches to the study of CS, the sociolinguistic is the most diverse, as it attends to a multiplicity

of linguistic-external factors: age, class, gender, social networks, community norms, identity, and attitudes,

among others.

The structural approach to CS, sociolinguistic analyzes of monolingual behavior at the micro and macro-

levels. The micro-level is focused on an individual’s motivations for CS. It examines identity construction

and accommodation.

Complementing these analyses, researches investigating CS as a community behavior within diverse social

contexts and by reference to societal norms.

The sociolinguist must know a great deal about the community in which she or he works, ideally including

knowledge about the socio-historical situation of language contact.

6- Sociolinguistic factors in code-switching

Sociolinguistics incorporates topics as different in scope as (in ambito di) the study of policy in multilingual

states, the role of “linguistic markets”, the different linguistic behavior of women vs. men, middle-class vs.

working-class and other social groups, and the analysis of individual conversations.

Study of relation between social factors and the speech of individuals, group, or communities.

The purpose begins to show how sociolinguistic can help us understand CS.

CS should be considered from a sociolinguistic perspective, where language behaviors and use are related

to speakers’ (social) identity and characteristics, or to aspects of their social life in the broad sense.

Sociolinguistics took off in the 1970s and 1980s, when following the work of Labov, the study of “natural”

vernacular speech, become a focus for linguistic study.

This changed with study of CS from an ethnographic perspective from a grammatical prospective. Both

used data collected in natural conversational settings to analyze different aspects of CS.

In observing the daily interactions of people, linguists noticed that such speakers often appeared to be

drawing on two or more different varieties and combining them in socially meaningful ways. The primary

source of data remains in the sociolinguistic arena.

The same languages can be combines in radically different ways grammatically speaking when, for example,

speakers of different generations are involved, or when the languages are combined in a immigrant, as

opposed to a native multilingual, setting.

From a sociolinguistic point of view, three types of factor contribute to the form taken by CS in a instance:

1- Factor independent of speakers and circumstances in which the varieties are used.

Che influenzano tutti I relatori delle varietà rilevanti in una particolare comunità, come forze di

mercato economiche descritte da B. prestigio evidente e coperto, relazioni di potere e

associazioni di ogni varietà con un particolare contesto o stile di vita.

2- Factors directly related to the speakers, both as individuals and as members of a variety of

subgroups: their social networks and relationships, their attitudes and ideologies.

3- Factors within the conversions where CS takes place: CS in a major resource for speakers, providing

further tools to structure their discourse beyond those available to monolinguals.

È uno strumento di risorsa per I parlanti perchè fornisce ulteriori mezzi per strutturare I discorsi

rispetto a quelli disponibili dai monolingue.

Gumperz and Harnandez wrote that “CS occurs whenever minority language groups come into close

contact with majority language groups under conditions of rapid social change.

Heller shows how CS can be used to manage and avoid conflict when different varieties are associated with

different roles in a society.

Vernacular linguistic forms continue to be used because they represent a form of resistance to domination,

so such patterns of use do not simply reflect the socio-political situation, they help to shape it.

Social structures somehow exist before language, which simply reflect or expresses the more fundamental

categories of the social.

Diglossia: these proposal focused attention on the functional differences between different varieties of the

same language and provided a set of structural parameters which allowed one situation to be compared

with another.

The concept od DIGLOSSIA was specifically related to CS by Myers-Scotton who also developed the concept

of markedness to explain the socio-psychological motivations for CS, using data collocated in various

settings in Africa, Kenya. A language choice could be either unmarked expected choice or marked.

CS merges (si fonda) with lexical borrowing at one end of the scale, one of the most minimal manifestations

of contact, and with converge/interference/code-mixing at the other end.

Variation in CS can be divided for practical purpose into variation between communities and variation

within communities or groups.

Systematical comparisons between CS in different language combinations and different contexts.

The LIPPS Project has set up a database of CS texts coded according to a common protocol and thus

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facilitating such comparisons. comparative approach.

McClure and McClure described a multilingual Saxon community in Romania in terms of the macro

linguistic relationships between the groups.

Their CS is more limited in type than that described elsewhere.

McClure compared written CS between English and the national languages in Mexico, Spain and Bulgaria.

In Bulgaria English has increasingly been used as a symbol of the West, a cultural and economic word to

which many Bulgarians aspire.

Poplack made a three-way comparison between data collected in the Puerto Rican community in New York

and a later data-set from five neighborhood within the Ottawa-Hull community in Canada.

The differences between the communities cannot be attributed to linguistic factors but only to the

different status on French in the two communities.

The comparison with Puerto Ricans in NEW York is less direct. Puerto Ricans are of immigrant origin.

Poplack describes switching found in New York as fluent and varied.

For the Puerto Ricans both languages are an i