Morfologia e sintassi

EXOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS

Cut throat = senza pietà

Subordinate compounds

Kill joy = guastafesta

The head is outside

White collar = impiegato

Free lance = libero professionista

Attributive compounds

Grey beard = old person

The head is outside

Coordinate compounds

Scientist-philosopher crew

The head is outside

Nature-nurture debate

If the head is not in the compound, then the compound is Exocentric.

Compounds are extremely productive in English

The most widespread types in the word languages are:

a) Noun-Noun

b) Adjective-Adjective

c) Verb-verb

Characteristic of AA compounds:

Formal → can be written with or without –

Base: light blue, bitter sweet (not light-blue)

Derived Adjective: blue eyed

Can be:

Attributive

Coordinate

NEOCLASSICAL COMPOUNDS

Words of Latin & Greek origin are combined with new words.

These compounds are not attested in the original languages.

Ex: Biochemistry

Biography

Biomass

Biodiversity

Other forms include for example:

Astro- Geo-Biblio- -graphy

Philo- -cracy

Tele- -itis

Words aren't bound roots because they combine with other neoclassical words and not with affixes like: Bapt- or prob-: bapt-ism, social-ism, prob-able, read-able. None of the previous forms can occur as a free form. They occur either initially or finally (first or second constituent).

TYPOLOGY

Linguistic type

Interlinguistic variation

There are more than 6000 languages

They are different

The differences depend on general principles

Typology is a synchronic analysis (not a diachronic one)

Syntax: order of constituents

Morphology: type of processes

Syntax: Focus on three main constituents of main sentences: Subject, Verb, Object.

Jhon loves Meg= The boy who is Jhon and Mick's friend loves playing cards

There are 2 main types: SVO and SOV (and also there are other types like VSO that is only 10%).

SVO (42%)

Indoeuropean Languages: romance, Germanic, slave & Baltic Ls

Finno-Ugric Ls: Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian

Niger-Congo-Bantu: Swahili, Fulah, Shona, Yorua, Igbo

Semitic: Ethiopic Ls, Arabic, Hebrew

low to high→each word has multiple morphemes that are easily identifiable→each morpheme has a clear boundary within the word→each morpheme has a fixed form and meaning, and can be added or removed to change the meaning of the wordEx: Turkish, Japanese, KoreanFUSIONAL LANGUAGES→the index of fusion is high→the index of synthesis is high→each word has multiple morphemes that are not easily identifiable→morphemes can be fused together, resulting in changes in form and meaningEx: Latin, Greek, Spanish, French, Italian, German, Russian, Arabic, Hebrew, Maltese, Aramaic

quite high→each word tends to have many morphemes→there are clear morpheme boundaries→each morpheme has only one meaningEx: Turkish

FUSIONAL LANGUAGE:→The index of fusion is very high→The index of syntesis is quite low:number of morpheme can be reduced because theycan take more than one function→There are no clear morpheme boundaries→Segmentation is difficult→There are irregularities→Each word tends to have many problems→Morphemes have more meanings→The same meaning can be expressed by many morphemesEx: Indoeuropean Ls (Latin, Slavic Ls, German)

INTROFLECTIVE LANGUAGES: subtypen of funsional typeEx: Arabic→Non linear order of affixedEx: Root ktb→meaning is wide→semantic field of writing/books

INFLECTIONAL TYPEInflecting-fusional/agglutinating/isolating ideal language types (Skalička)The noun and verb inflection system of the following languages can be ordered graduallyin regard to inflectional morphology on the scales

of: a) Isolating ↔ inflecting-fusional ideal type b) Inflecting-fusional ↔ agglutinating ideal type a) Noun inflection: French – Spanish – English – Italian – German – Greek – Slavic Languages b) Verb inflection: English – German – Spanish – French – Italian – Slavic languages – Greek b) Noun and verb inflection: Slavic languages – Finnish – Hungarian – Turkish English Inflection → isolating language Ex: more handsome *more tall *more big Conversion hug → to hug I love – you love – they love Word-formation → agglutinating language (compounding over derivation) Inflecting-fusional Italian verbs (a), nouns (b), adjectives (c): a) Mangiava → -ava imperfect, indicative 3rd person singular b) Libri → -i masculine plural c) Altissima → -issima superlative, feminine singular LEXICON Semantic Meaning in context Denotation and

CONNOTATION

ENTAILMENT: Synonymous → automobile and car

I drove my car = I drove my automobile

The two sentences share the same meaning

If a sentence is true, then the other is also true.

The truth of sentence A requires the truth of sentence B

If X then Y

Now consider:

a. Jim rides a bike to school every morning

This sentence implies that:

1. Jim goes to school every morning
2. Jim goes to University every morning
3. Jim goes to English classes every morning

Now consider:

a. Jim rides a bike to school every morning

This sentence implies that:

1. Jim has got a bike
2. Jim can ride a bike
3. Jim is a student

POLYSEMY

One form → multiple related meanings

To get → I'll get some water, I got scared

Penne → pasta, Pen, Feather

HOMONYMY, HOMOPHONES, HOMOGRAPHS

HOMONYMY

One form → different unrelated meanings

Same sound/ different or same spelling

It is divided into two groups: Homographs and Homophones

Ex: /səul/ → spirit, fish

Sole → sun, adj. fem. Alone

1) Homographs

Same spelling

→ different meaning, sometimes different pronunciation Ex: read (infinitive) → read (past) 2) Homophones Same sound → different meaning, different spelling Ex: some, sun Son, sun ANTONYMS Two words whose meanings are the opposite of each other Good/bad, Hot/cold, Warm/cool, Honest/dishonest - Complementary: one or the other one → dead/alive - Sets: more than two items → beautiful, ugly, gorgeous, horrible - Converse: different perspective → buy/sell, borrow/lend HYPERONYM AND HYPONYM Hyperonym = group in general like animals, dogs, colours... Hyponym = parts of a group like purple, red, blue from the group of colors. Animals: dog, cat, bird, horse Dogs: Dalmatian, Beagle, Bulldog Colors: purple, red, blue SYNTAX A word: - Has at least one form and meaning - Has one (main) stress - It is usually an indivisible unit - It has a part of speech specification - It is a syntactic atom PHRASES VS. CLAUSES VS. SENTENCES Phrases and Clauses are the building blocks ofboy crossed the road. 2) PRONOUN PHRASES Function as pronouns in sentences. Ex: He is my friend. 3) ADJECTIVE PHRASES Modify nouns or pronouns. Ex: The vanilla ice cream is delicious. 4) ADVERB PHRASES Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Ex: She ran very quickly. 5) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Consist of a preposition and its object. Ex: She went to the store. 6) VERB PHRASES Consist of a main verb and any auxiliary verbs or modifiers. Ex: They have been studying all night.

boy plays the violin → He plays

The young boys play the violin → They play

The modifier

Structure of the modifier(Determiner) Adj head noun → the beautiful table

(Determiner) (Adv) Adj head noun → a very beautiful table

(Determiner) (Adv) Adj head noun → some very beautiful tables

Two tables of the law

Dirty tables in the room

Notice: of the law and in the room are EMBEDDED phrases = phrases used as modifiers.

2) PRONOUNS PHRASES

The workers and they as head of noun phrases

The workers were on strike after they were told the management was about to lower the wages.

3) ADJECTIVE PHRASES

Act like adjectives, the head is an adjective.

Moderately rich

Quite expensive

Ex: Jhon was moderately long in the arms (Long is the head)

4) ADVERB PHRASES

Act like adverbs, the head is an adverb

Modifiers → degree adverbs: quite, very, rather…

Quite moderately

Obviously

Very quickly

Adjective and adverb phrases share similar structure and are termed → A-phrases

5) PREPOSITIONAL

Prepositional phrases are usually embedded in verb phrases. The head is a proposition.

Play in the garden.

I have been waiting for a couple of hours.

VERB PHRASES

Act like verbs (including main verbs and helping verbs), the head is a verb.

They should trust him.

The young boy crossed the road.

Ex: Has been waiting for the man with the dog

Verb phrase → has been waiting for the man with the dog

Prepositional phrase → for the man with the dog

Noun phrase → the man with the dog

Prepositional phrase (2) → with the dog

Noun phrase (2) → the dog

CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words with subjects and predicates (verb & objects), it can be made of phrases. It might have an independent meaning.

Ex: The boy played with his cousin, while his father was looking for him in the park

The sentence has two clauses:

1. A main clause: usually independent, meaningful (red)

2. A secondary clause: dependent on the main clause (green)

While is a connecting word that links the two clauses

erbs that can function as stative verbs, linking verbs, or copular verbs. These verbs do not take a direct object and instead link the subject to a complement that describes or identifies it. Here is an example sentence using one of these verbs: - She appears happy. In this sentence, "appears" is functioning as a linking verb, connecting the subject "she" to the complement "happy," which describes her state or condition. Other examples of stative verbs, linking verbs, or copular verbs include: - He became a doctor. - They seem tired. - The food tastes delicious. - The flowers smell lovely. These verbs are important in expressing states, conditions, or qualities rather than actions.