Digital technology theory

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY

Lesson, 30 September 2025

MAIN DEFINITIONS:

Technology:

use of conceptual knowledge to achieve practical objectives in a consistent and reproducible

way. It can also refer to the tools, systems and products created through these applications.

Digital:

Anything that shows information using separate values (binary code: a series of the numbers

0s and 1s). Binary code allows computers and electronic devices to process, store, and send

information.

Digitality:

cultural construction that derives from the combination of information and technical findings

that allows the digitalization of knowledge, processes and productions. These digital

elements now completely shape our daily lives and our way of living. (condition of living in a

digital culture).

⤷ Digital culture (or internet culture):

Digital culture refers to the ways people live, think, communicate, create, and organize

themselves in environments defined by digital technologies.These technologies include the

internet, social media, mobile devices, algorithms, and data networks.

Digital culture is both a set of practices and a way of life that comes from the strong and

constant influence of digital systems on society.

This culture is created and maintained by the users of the internet (also called netizens,

meaning “citizens of the web”).

Digital transformation:

A strategic, organizational, and cultural process that uses digital technologies to deeply

change how an organization creates value, works, and interacts with its environment.

Important examples of digital transformation are the financial system, social media,

e-commerce and healthcare.

Artificial Intelligence (AI):

question about: is it a type of digital transformation or an enabler for it?

AI is a tool or technology that helps organizations speed up, improve, and expand their

digital transformation processes.

Algorithm:

It is a replicable step-by step process followed in order to accomplish a task.

key points to remember:

-​ replicability: algorithm can be repeated many times and always gives the same

result if the inputs are the same.

-​ step-by-step (structured): algorithm is made of clear, ordered instructions.

-​ process: not a single action but a sequence of ordered actions that work together.

-​ goal-oriented (task): is always have a purpose (solve specific problem, complete

specific task)

Long before computers, mathematicians created step-by-step methods (algorithms) to solve

problems. These showed that clear instructions can solve a problem even without knowing

all the theory behind it.

Godel’s incompleteness theorem

“there are some true statements in mathematics that cannot be proved by any set of rules or

axioms”

It proved that some theoretical/problem can not be resolved through an algorithm

This discovery helped define computer science as the study of what can and cannot be

solved by algorithms.

Program:

An algorithm version written in a way that a computer can understand and execute.

Humans write programs using programming languages, and computers execute them to

perform tasks.

Programming:

It is the process of creating a program.

It is the process of writing a set of code: instructions that tells a computer how to perform

specific tasks.

(not just syntax, about design and following a specific logic, allocation)

Software:

collection of programs, data, and instructions that guide a computer’s hardware on what to

do and how to perform specific tasks, turning the hardware into a useful and functional

system.

it is the mediator between human and machine

different types of software:

1.​ System software: essential software that manages all the computer’s functions and

allows other programs to work.

2.​ Firmware: software built into a device that controls its basic functions.

3.​ Driver software: software that helps the computer communicate with hardware (like

printers or keyboards).

4.​ Security software: software that protects a device from viruses, attacks, and threats.

5.​ Utility software: small tools that help maintain and optimize the computer (like

antivirus or cleaners).

6.​ Networking software: software that allows computers and devices to connect to

each other and access the Internet.

7.​ Cloud software: software that works online and stores data on remote servers, not

on your computer.

8.​ Applications software: programs used to do specific tasks, like browsing, editing

photos, or messaging.

9.​ Productivity software: software used to work, write, organize, or create (like Word,

Excel).

10.​Business software: software used for business tasks like accounting, sales, or

management.

11.​Enterprise software: software used by big companies to manage operations (like

ERP or CRM).

12.​Development software: software used by programmers to create other software.

13.​Educational software: software designed for learning and teaching.

14.​Media player software: software that plays music, videos, or images.

15.​Gaming software: software made for playing video games.

16.​Embedded software: software that is inside machines or devices and makes them

work (like cars, watches…)

Lesson, 14/10

Hardware:

the physical parts of a computer or device, it includes all the components that make the

machine work.

Examples:

●​ CPU (Central Processing Unit): brain of the computer, it processes information and

runs instructions.

●​ RAM (Memory): short-term memory that helps the computer work fast while

programs are open.

●​ Hard Drive / SSD: long-term storage where files, photos, apps, and the operating

system are kept.

●​ Motherboard: main board that connects all the hardware parts together.

●​ GPU (Graphics Card): handles images, videos, and games, it makes graphics look

fluid.

●​ Keyboard: device used to type text and commands.

●​ Screen / Monitor: shows images, videos, apps, and everything you do on the

computer.

●​ Battery: gives power to laptops and mobile devices.

●​ Speakers: play sound and music.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER AND COMPUTATION:

●​ Ancient times → the abacus

one of the earliest computing tools, used in ancient China, Greece, and Rome. It

stored and represented numbers using beads (palline) on rods (aste) but required

human control.

●​ 1600s-1800s → Mechanical Calculators

inventors like pascal, leibniz and babbage built machines with mechanical parts to

do arithmetic calculations.

Babbage’s analytical engine → first design for a programmable computer

Ada Lovelace → first programmer

●​ 1801: programmable machines begin

●​ early 1900s: electro mechanical era

●​ 1937-1945: birth of electronic computers

●​ 1950s - 1960s: the hardware revolution

●​ 1970s: rise of the microcomputer

●​ 1981: the IBM & PC e software boom

●​ 1998: introduction of Google

●​ Today: digital age

INTERNET:

global network of computers and devices connected to each other, allowing people to

exchange information, communicate, and access services and content from anywhere in the

world.

At the end of the 20th century, computers started to be connected to the Internet (a global

system). The Internet completely changed how people communicate, share information, and

work.

Web: system of interconnected pages and documents that can be accessed through the

Internet.

Researcher Tim Berners-Lee proposed a system to connect documents stored on

computers across the Internet. (this system created the web)​

Opte Project:

famous data visualization initiative that maps the structure of the Internet.​

The map shows:the routes that data follows, how computers and networks are connected,​

the complexity and size of the global Internet.​

The project was created by Barrett Lyon in 2003 as an artistic and educational attempt to

“make the invisible visible,” showing what the Internet looks like behind the scenes.

First application of internet:

ARPANET (1969):

-​ remote connection between computers to share research resources

-​ email (first major popular application)

COMPUTER MINIATURIZATION:

Miniaturization in electronic devices:

putting more transistor nodes into a smaller integrated circuit (IC). The IC is then connected

to the system or device it belongs to, so that the whole system can do its expected job once

it is assembled.​

This technology becomes smaller but also more powerful, in this way more users can use

the device and the more users you have, the more useful that product becomes.

Today, very small computers are built inside many electronic appliances and devices

Bell’s law:

about every 10 years, a new cheaper type of computer appears (new software platforms,

new networks and new interfaces)

Each new computer class creates new uses, new industries and new markets.

Two major forces that influenced this evolution:

●​ Proliferation → computers becoming more common

●​ Miniaturization → computers becoming smaller

Most important miniaturization:

Smartphones: become small portable computers

They include many sensors and interfaces, such as:

●​ cameras

●​ microphones

●​ a compass (bussola)

●​ a touch screen

●​ an accelerometer (to detect the phone’s movement and orientation)

●​ several wireless technologies to communicate with other smartphones and

computers

Evolution of smartphones:

Other important questions:

1. Which problems can be solved by algorithmic processes?

Problems with clear rules, steps, and measurable data.​

Examples: math calculations, data analysis, searching, classification, optimization.

2. What aspects of our lives can be translated into algorithms?

Many daily activities: recommendations (YouTube, Spotify), maps, online shopping, social

media, scheduling, and information search.

3. What is the relationship between digital technology and our lifestyle?

Digital technology changes how we communicate, work, study, and get information, while

our needs also drive new technologies.

4. Are we shaping technology or is technology shaping us?

Both. We create technology for our needs, but technology also changes our habits and

behavior.

5. To what extent will we rely on technology?

Our dependence will keep increasing, especially in communication, work, health, education,

and transport.

DATA:

information such as facts, words, images, measurements, sounds and numbers used to

analyze something or make decisions.

Data compared to system components:

●​ they are not complete

●​ they work at a very simple level

●​ they do not function on their own

●​ they cannot be easily combined with each other​

Computers can represent any information that can be divided into clear parts and turned into

digital form.​

Algorithms can then process this digital information in many different ways: they can find

patterns, create simulations, and identify connections between pieces of information,

generating new knowledge and new ideas.

Digital data:

data represented using discrete symbols (binary code: 0s and 1s) that computers can store,

process, and transmit. Every file, image or piece of text on a computer is encoded in this

digital format.

Big data:

extremely large and complex sets of structured, unstructured and semi-structured data that

often comes from multiple sources and grows continuously. These datasets are so huge

and complex in volume, velocity, and variety, that traditional data management and systems

and tools cannot store, process, and analyze them.

Big data is commonly described by five factors:

1.​ volume: amount of data

2.​ velocity: speed at which data is created, collected and processed

3.​ variety: different types of data

-​ structured: rigid and well-defined structure, organized in tables, example:

excel sheet;

-​ unstructured: no precise structure, no organization in tables, example: taxes,

photos, audios;

-​ semi-structured: not rigid as structured data, still have a partial form that

describes them, example (JSON, HTML)).

4.​ veracity: the quality and the reliability of data

5.​ value: usefulness of the data

Datafication:

the process of transforming various aspects of our world and activities (analog information)

into digital data that can be collected, analyzed and used to make decisions or get

knowledge.

Datafication has grown because digital technologies are more common and huge amounts

of data are now available in modern society.

It affects many areas such as business, healthcare, transportation, education, and everyday

life.

Sources of datafication:

●​ social media

●​ business and organizational processes

●​ smart cities

●​ healthcare and medical studies

●​ entertainment

●​ sensors and data collection from devices

Problems of datafication:

●​ Privacy loss: personal activities are constantly tracked, reducing individual privacy.

●​ Security risks: large data sets can be vulnerable to data leaks (fuga di dati) or

misuse.

●​ Ethical concerns: data can reinforce biases, enable surveillance, or be used unfairly.

●​ Economic costs: collecting, storing, and managing massive data requires expensive

infrastructure.

●​ Consent and ownership Issues: it’s often unclear who owns or controls the collected

data

Data-driven value creation:

use of data to create business value. Companies analyze data to make better decisions,

improve services, optimize processes, and innovate.

Data products:

Products or services that work thanks to data, created using analysis or algorithms.​

Examples: recommendation systems (Netflix, Spotify), maps, and navigation tools.

Data commodities:

Data is treated as a raw material that can be collected, sold, traded, or reused.​

Companies use large amounts of data for research, advertising, and analysis.

( Lesson, 21/11/2025 )

Data storage:

Bits and bytes

Bits (binary digits):

encoded information as patterns of 0s and 1s. Bits are only symbols whose meaning

depends on the application in use. Patterns of bits are used to represent different items:

numeric values, alphabet and punctuation marks, images or sound.

Byte: a string of eight bits. A typical memory cell has a capacity of one byte.

Main Memory (RAM): part of a computer that stores large collections of circuits, where each

circuit can store a single bit. All these bits together form the computer’s main memory.

It is organized into cells that usually store one byte each.

Main memory keeps the data and instructions that the computer needs while it is running.

Main memory → cells → bytes → 8 bits

Storage units:

Computers use powers of 2, so 1 KB = 1024 (2¹⁰) bytes, not 1000.

Since 1024 is close to 1000, computer scientists borrowed the prefixes “kilo,” “mega,” and

“giga.”

However, this is not scientifically correct, because in science “kilo” always means 1000 (just

like 1 km = 1000 m).

●​ KB: kilobytes

●​ MB: megabytes

●​ GB: gigabytes

Different types of storage devices used to save data in computers:

●​ Ultra ATA: older hard drive technology used mainly in older computers.

●​ SATA: common hard drive standard that is faster and more reliable than older ATA

models.

●​ SCSI: high-performance hard drive used in servers and workstations for heavy

workloads.

●​ Solid State (SSD): very fast storage device with no moving parts, improving speed

and durability.

●​ External: portable storage drive connected via USB, used for backups and data

transfer.

SYSTEM:

set of interrelated components that work together toward a common goal by receiving inputs,

processing them and producing outputs in an organized way.

IPO model: input → process → output

System in computer science and information systems:

combination of hardware, software, data, people, and procedures that work together to

process information and support decision-making.

IPO model: input (keyboard) → process (CPU) → output (screen)

COMPUTER COMPONENTS:

RAM:

type of temporary computer memory that stores the data and instructions a computer needs

right now while it’s operating.

it gives the CPU fast access to information, allowing programs to run quickly and smoothly.

characteristics:

-​ volatile memory: all data is deleted when the computer is turned off

-​ fast and temporary: used only while tasks are active

-​ the more RAM a computer has, the more applications it can run at the same time

without slowing down

types of RAM:

-​ DRAM (Dynamic RAM): stores each bit of data in a tiny capacitor that must be

continuously “refreshed” to keep the information. Because of this, it is slower, but

also cheaper and more space-efficient. It is the type of memory used as the

computer’s main RAM.

-​ SRAM (Static RAM): stores data using small circuits called flip-flops, which do not

need to be refreshed. This makes it faster and more reliable, but also more

expensive and larger. It is usually used in the CPU cache, where very high speed is

required.

Mass storage system (secondary storage system):

additional memory devices needed because of the volatility and limited side of a computer’s

main memory.

Mass storage systems include magnetic disks, CDs, DVSs, magnetic tapes, flash drives and

solid-state disks.

Disadvantages of magnetic and optical mass storage systems → more prone to mechanical

failures than solid systems, require mechanical motion and more time to store and retrieve

data than a machine’s main memory.

HDD (Hard disk drive) vs SSD (solid state drives):

2 kinds of computer storage:

HDD: mechanical storage device

parts:

●​ Platters → rotating disks that store the data

●​ Spindle → the rod that spins the disks

●​ R/W Head (read/write head) → reads an