Appunti di esame psicometria

Formatting the Text

The hypotheses are a step after the objectives, they are more specific and serve to express and define how the objectives will be empirically verified. The protocol that describes in detail how the data will be collected and how the observations and/or experimental treatments will be performed contributes to good research. It must be detailed enough both for the ethics committee and for the possibility of replicating research by other researchers in the same way.

Characteristics and types of non-empirical methods and scientific method, difference between facts and opinions: when we talk about non-empirical methods, we are talking about logic or authority and does not involve data collection; in the case of the use of empirical data in a correct way, we speak of a scientific method that provides for the respect of rules, the collection of data in an objective way, characterized by a language, precisely, scientific, which goes beyond the personalistic and subjective aspect that, on the other hand,

it characterizes the non-empirical method. The scientific method aims at the generalizability of the data collected and therefore we speak of facts when in a given situation anyone can reach the same conclusion, with a causal relationship; when we make statements then we must be sure that we have evidence of the consistency of our statements. It is different when we speak of opinions that instead represent personal beliefs or impressions not based on empirical evidence.

1. What are the units of analysis or cases or subjects in a research?

These are the generic term to indicate the object on which the characteristic of interest is detected. The units of analysis can therefore be both people (participants, patients, ...) and animals, geographical entities, or temporal entities, or anything on which a variable property can be detected (or any attribute or characteristic, physical or psychic, which assumes different values or categories, if subject to observation).

4. List and describe the

fundamental principles of the ethics of scientific dissemination: in order for the research to be carried out, the protocol must be examined and approved by the ethics committee that evaluates the well-being of people, including in the field of research. The fundamental principles are to, first of all not harm, and therefore also to be competent (skills, knowledge and limit of researchers), intact (do not lie about one's own competence and training in order to get carry out a research, do not choose the data on the basis of one's own convenience) and have social responsibility (compliance with the rules in respect of people and animals, promotion of knowledge for a greater well-being of society and of the person).

5. describe the steps to follow to carry out the bibliographic search: it is necessary to access the "advanced search" section which is located on the site chosen to perform the search. It is important to identify several keywords that are related to our research.

object and link them with the word AND so that the system can find the documents that contain all the keywords, entered in the search bar, in the abstracts in order to narrow the field research to some documents that are more salient and specific to our topic. In the event that the results obtained were few, it is good to delete some less relevant keywords, vice versa if too few add some or request a search only in the title. Once the abstract is understood, through the university credentials, it is possible to download the entire document.

6. What does the external validity of a research consist of and the precautions to ensure it: it concerns both the representativeness of the research result with respect to the population of interest, and the replicability of the result (it constitutes an empirical confirmation of the validity of the results, however there may be cases in which the particular historical contingency of the moment in which the study is carried out is no longer present and the

1. Introduction: This section should clearly state the objective of the research and provide a brief background on the topic.

2. Methods: This section should describe in detail the methods and procedures used in the study, including the sample size, data collection methods, and any statistical analyses performed.

3. Results: This section should present the main findings of the study, including any statistical data or graphs that support the results.

4. Discussion: This section should interpret the results and discuss their implications, as well as any limitations or potential biases in the study.

5. Conclusion: This section should summarize the main findings of the study and provide recommendations for future research.

6. References: This section should list all the sources cited in the article, following a specific citation style (e.g., APA or MLA).

7. Appendix: This section may include additional information or data that is relevant to the study but not included in the main text.

1. Implications of the results

Introduction: it has three main objectives, namely to introduce the subject of the research and why it was chosen, briefly summarize the previous reading inherent to the study and describe the theoretical implications of the study; finally, it aims to describe the purpose, logic and design of the study with a logical development of the hypotheses concerning the research.

2. Method

Description of what has been done and therefore the number and nature of the participants, the materials, instruments or equipment used and the procedure followed.

3. Results

Statistical information must be present, with particular attention to providing the reader with sufficient tables and graphs in order to facilitate the reading of large amounts of data.

4. Discussion

The conclusions reached are present; you compare your own results with those achieved by others in the same area.

5. Bibliography

List and describe the various types of non-probabilistic sampling: when we talk about

non-probabilistic sampling, we refer to a condition for which the probability that each individual has to appear in the sample is not known a priori and does not depend on the intention of the people to attend. Sampling by quotas are not probabilistic (no random extraction but the proportions of the strata are reproduced by looking for desired characteristics), by reasoned choice (knowledge that the researcher has on the population, trying to identify a sample that has "typical" elements), to avalanche (people are recruited who, in turn, are asked to recruit others and so on), arbitrary (I can use it when I have no particular need for representativeness or a sample is more appropriate for me), convenience (there is no intention to identify a sample that is comparable to a population). 16. What does the statistical validity of a research consist of: it represents the validity of inferences about the correlation between the independent and dependent variable. It is not so much about theil testo formattato con tag html sarebbe il seguente:

Il fatto che ottengo un risultato statisticamente significativo consiste nell'abilità di utilizzare i test statistici appropriati per il tipo di scala delle variabili e le caratteristiche distributive dei dati, più in generale del disegno di ricerca; inoltre, il campione deve essere sufficientemente grande per contenere la possibilità di commettere errori di tipo I e II. La dimensione del campione è molto importante, il numero influisce sulla potenza statistica che aumenta con un numero maggiore determinando la possibilità di trovare un effetto (p < .05), quindi la determinazione del campione deve essere stabilita in anticipo, anche per rispondere a un comportamento eticamente corretto.

Descrivere cosa consiste la validità ecologica di una ricerca, quali fattori la minacciano e i suoi principali significati: la validità ecologica è un tipo di validità esterna che indaga il comportamento che le persone mettono in atto nel contesto dello studio e corrisponde al comportamento messo in atto nella vita quotidiana; per questo motivo

The threats are represented by artificiality, which, however, is an intrinsic characteristic of the experiment, which can be in varying degrees different from real life; and from the artificiality that implies a force of rules and defects of the experimental implementation. I have to ask myself if the behavior observed during the experiment actually corresponds to the real behavior.

Describe what the literature review consists of: it is essential to be able to find out about what is known about the observed phenomenon and whether there are already theories or explanatory models and of these it is important to know how the phenomenon was investigated. First of all, it is important to understand if our research has already been investigated and if there are still aspects not investigated. It answers the question of whether or not research is useful, whether it is actually capable of carrying it out and therefore whether it has the appropriate tools and the necessary skills; moreover, it helps

To improve its definition, identify any theoretical or methodological problems not yet resolved. I do not have to carry out a list of descriptions but I have to carry out an organic evaluation based on the objectives of the study that is able to give an overview.

When you search for the state of the art of a topic, you can search using the term "review" to get a review of what has already been done.

Describe the differences between the objectives and hypotheses of a research by providing an example: the definition of the objectives implies indicating the methodology, the implications of the variables, and the reference population; the hypotheses, on the other hand, are more specific and allow us to define precisely how the objectives will be empirically verified and therefore which path I will take from a statistical point of view and how the variables are measured; in the event that the field of investigation has never been explored, providing a priori hypotheses can be extremely complex.

Research objective: To investigate whether the sample of 50 enrolled in the gym during the quarantine and therefore online is distributed in the various courses consistently with the past.

Variables: Polytomous nominal variable: courses (Pilates, Yoga, Boxing, Crossfit).

General hypothesis: If the difference between the observed and expected frequencies does not differ significantly from zero, the sample is distributed in the courses as in the past, otherwise it is distributed in a different way.

Experimental hypotheses:

• H0: The course choices of gym members during quarantine this year are distributed like those known from past years; there has been no change from the past.
• H1: The course choices of members of the gym during quarantine in this year are distributed differently than in previous years; there has been a change from the past.

20. Which questions should be answered in a literature review: A literature review allows you to reorder your ideas when you want to undertake a new research.

1. What is the meaning of life?
2. How can I find happiness?
3. What is the secret to success?
4. Why do bad things happen to good people?