Riassunto esame Lingua e Traduzione Inglese II, prof.ssa Sciacco, libro consigliato Mastering Advanced English Language, Sara Thorne

Adverbials give info about time, manner, and place. They can be adverb phrases,

5. prepositional or noun phrases or clauses. It can have different places in the clause to

give emphasis to certain elements.

Sentence is a grammatical form that has sense on its own. One main clause forms a simple

sentence, with one finite verb.

A compound sentence is formed by two or more simple sentences linked by co-ordinating

conjunctions (and, or, but), meaning that each clause has sense on its own. To avoid

repetition, we can use substitution, so that a pronoun replaces a noun or a noun phrase

(Dickens wrote many stories and he is popular ), or ellipsis which is the omission of an

element, that has to be recognised (The leaves fall to the ground and blow around the

garden).

Complex sentence is made up of different clauses that don’t have equal meaning, because

there is a main clause and a subordinate clause, which is dependent to the main one, since it

has no meaning by itself. There are six types of subordinate clauses:

A noun clause can be the subject or the object. There are that-clauses (I decided that

1. the essay was too long), wh-clauses (I wonder what I can do), adverbial clauses (I

went when I saw the time).

Relative clauses add extra info about a noun in the main one. The man who lives next

2. door.

A comparative clause starts with as, or than. I am faster than he is.

3. A non-finite clause can be recognised by an infinitive, a present participle, or a past

4. participle at the beginning. I wanted to go.

Verbless main clauses. Lovely weather.

5.

Compound-complex sentence are characterised by the use both co-ordination and

subordination.

Major and minor sentences. Minor sentences don’t follow certain specific rules, so they are

irregular and lack some clause elements. They can be: formulae (Hello, thanks),

interjections (Ah!), abbreviated forms (Nearly there), exclamation, questions, or commands

(What a day! Never! Taxi!).

To analyse a sentence, it’s necessary to recognise the verb, identify the lexical verb and

mark the main clause, then the clause elements. Afterwards the subordinate clauses and their

function, and finally the type of subordinate clause by identifying the word class of the first

word.

Mood is used to show the attitude of the speaker to the action of the verb phrase. There are:

Declarative mood, used to make statements; Interrogative mood used for questions;

Imperative mood for orders.

Cohesion. Sentences are combined into discourse, which is written or spoken language

longer than a sentence. Cohesion is the study of the ways in which sentences are linked to

create a discourse.

We have different types of cohesive devices:

Lexical cohesion is a textual linking depending on the choice of words. Many

1. cohesive techniques can be used, such as:

Collocations formed by words associated within phrases. They are usually idioms

and clichés, easily recognisable. Home and dry, safe and sound.

Repetition of both words or phrases. Synonyms are used.

Superordinates are general words (crockery). Hyponyms are subdivision of the

general categories (plate, cup, bowl).

Substitution consists in replacing one linguistic element with a shorter one.

2. Noun phrases can be replaced with personal pronouns or by indefinite pronouns.

Joseph loves toy trains and he has two of them.

Verb phrases can be replaced by the auxiliary verb do. Julie likes swimming and

mark does too.

Clauses can be replaced with so for a positive clause and not for a negative one. It’s

going to be sunny today? They say so.

Ellipsis consists in the elimination of one part of a sentence, which must be clear to

3. be understandable. Ellipsis can also be used to set up coherent links when the item to

be supplied comes from the reader’s general knowledge or common sense, rather

than the actual text. Noun phrases, verb phrases and clauses can be omitted.

Referencing. References don’t have meaning on their own, because they point to

4. something else in a discourse. The key is that we can recover the referent of the

cohesive marker from within the text itself. Pronouns are used, as well as

comparative structures. There are three types of reference:

Anaphoric references which point backwards in a text. The boy broke the window

and he then ran away.

Cataphoric references which point forwards. These are the words he used: ‘I cannot

stand it any longer’.

Exophoric references which point beyond a text, outside the discourse. We have to

look at the context. I was this high then.

Linking adverbs and conjunctions provide links within a sentence or a discourse.

5. There are four types:

Additive adverbs and conjunction add information as an afterthought. And, besides.

Adversative adverbs and conjunction create a contrast between what has been said

and what is going to be said. Yet, however, on the contrary.

Causal adverbs and conjunctions suggesting one clause is the result of the other.

Because, since, therefore.

Temporal adverbs and conjunctions create a time link between one clause or sentence

and another. Before, while, after that, meanwhile.

Chapter 3 - Style.

Sentence organisation we are able to use a variety of syntactical elements in order to convey

particular features.

Sentence types: simple sentences show innocence and naivety of stile, while on the other

hand, complex sentences are used to deal with complicated ideas.

Marked theme is the clause element that has been put in the initial position, replacing the

subject. This technique is called fronting, or foregrounding. Adverbials are the most

flexible clause elements. Also, objects and complements can be marked theme, commonly

in spoken language. In literary language, it’s possible to change the position of objects and

complements to create dramatic effects.

Example: Unmarked theme: The train departed on time that morning. The garden was

uncontrolled.

Marked theme: That morning the train departed on time. Uncontrolled was the garden.

End focus is the device by which new information are put at the end of a sentence,

emphasising it more than the beginning. I gave John a brand new pen; I gave a brand new

pen to John.

Existential there is used to create another kind of end focus, thus making an existential

sentence. It has no meaning, it’s called dummy subject and its function is to delay the real

subject of the sentence. This is then called delayed subject which has more emphasis and

importance because of its position. A great many people are worried; there are a great many

worried people .

Passive voice is a device used to change the focus. The adverbial by + agent creates end

focus; however, it isn’t necessary and its absence put emphasis not on the people but on the

events.

Cleft sentences are used to help us focus on a particular part of the sentence and to

emphasise what we want to say by introducing it with a kind of relative clause. In divided or

cleft sentence, information which could be given in one clause is divided into two parts,

each with its own verb. Cleft structures include: the reason why, the thing that, the

person/people who, the place where, the day when and what-clauses which are usually

linked to the clause that we want to focus on with is or was. Cleft structures with what-

clauses are often used with verbs expressing an emotive response to something. Cleft

structures with what-clauses are also often used with does/do/did and with the verb happen

when we want to give emphasis to the whole sentence, rather than a particular clause.

Literary and rhetorical devices are used to intensify the power of the text. They are

structures used to influence the audience. Rhetoric is the art of persuasive discourse. There

are three types of persuasion: Ethos which relies on the individual character of the

writer/speaker, since it determines the tone and point of view chosen for the discourse.

Pathos working on the emotions of the audience.

Logos is based on reasoned argument.

Figurative language is used to say something in the terms of something else.

Lexical choice, or choice of words, may be influenced by the point of view of one specific

subject or situation, ethos, by the emotive response it wishes to promote, pathos, or by the

subject-specific nature of a topic, logos.

Literary devices are used to clarify a point, to add colour, intensity, or emotions. They have

a figurative function.

Irony is the use of a word or phrase with an established meaning which is turned to

• its opposite.

Metaphor describes one thing in terms of another one, creating a comparison.

• Metonymy is a device by which the name of an attribute is replaced by the thing

• itself. The Crown, the monarchy.

Overstatement or hyperbole is a form of exaggeration.

• Oxymoron is the device by which two contradictory words are put together to create

• a special effect. Delicious poison.

Paradox is a self-contradictory statement that has a deeper meaning. War is peace.

• Freedom is slavery.

Personification is the attribution of human qualities to an object or idea. The winter

• evening settles down.

Pun is a play of words. Homonyms have the same sound and spelling but a different

• meaning. Homophones have the same sound but a different spelling and meaning.

Simile is when two things are compared, using the preposition like or as.

• Symbolism is the use of an object to represent something else. Scales symbolises

• justice.

Synecdoche is a figurative device in which the part stands for the whole. The

• prisoner was placed behind bars (in prison).

Understatement or litotes is the opposite of exaggeration.

•

Sound patterning: writers and speakers are able to use a wide range of devices that influence

the patterns and sounds of words in order to create some effects.

Alliteration is the repetition of a consonant, in the initial position. Build a better

• Britain. In advertisements, captions, and headlines, are used to make the text eye-

catching and memorable.

Assonance is the repetition of a vowel in the medial position. It’s mainly a poetic

• device and makes words sound musical, used to create a pensive tone.

Consonance is the repetition of a consonant in the medial or final position. It can

• draw attention to a product name in advertising or emphasise the meaning of literary

language by creating a hard sound.

Onomatopoeia is a sound directly linked to its meaning.

• Rhyme or half-rhyme are the exact or partial repetition of a sound, usually at the

• end of a poetic line.

Rhetorical devices: by using them, writers or speakers are able to modify the structural

patterns of discourse.

Antithesis places two words or ideas in opposition to bring a contrast.

• Branching is the order of subordinate and main clauses in a discourse. There is left

• branching which puts the subordinate at the beginning of the sentence, thus delaying

the main one. Right branching gives the main info