Riassunto esame Lingua e traduzione inglese 1, docente Christiansen, libro consigliato The future of English, Graddol

The legacy of history

The colonial period

The history of the English language began in the 17th century, most notably in the foundation of the American colonies. In the 19th century, the British Empire, with its distinctive mix of trade and cultural politics, consolidated the world position of English.

The rise of the nation state

In Europe of the Middle Ages, power was distributed between the Church, sovereign, and local barons. But by the 17th and 18th centuries, the nation state had emerged as a territorial basis for administration and cultural identity. Each nation state required therefore an internal lingua franca. The English language was self-consciously expanded and reconstructed to serve the purposes of a national language. Profound cultural as well as political changes affected the English language.

The 20th-century process of decolonisation created a drive to establish new national languages which could provide an integrated identity for multi-ethnic states set up on the European model. In some countries, a new national language had to be created. Nation states are becoming more plentiful, and one consequence of the breakup of larger territories into separate states has been the emergence of new national languages. Simultaneously, the role of the nation state is being weakened by economic globalisation.

The emergence of national varieties

Noah Webster's proposed reforms of the American spelling system were intended explicitly to create a national linguistic identity for the newly independent country. There are an increasing number of national standards, including those related to the 'New Englishes' which have appeared in former colonial countries. No central authority has ever existed to regulate the language.

A hybrid and flexible language

English has always been an evolving language, and language contact has been an important driver of change (for Celtic, Latin, Scandinavian, Norman French, for the languages spoken in British colonies). One of the few certainties associated with the future of English is that it will continue to evolve. At the end of the 20th century, the close relationship is being challenged by globalising forces.

Seven ages of English

• Pre-English period (-c. AD 450): At the time of the Roman invasion c. 55 BC, the Romans made Latin an 'official' language of culture and government, with many communities in Britain becoming bilingual Celtic-Latin. The English language has repeated this early history of Latin, serving as an international lingua franca amongst the elites of many countries. However, the use of Latin rapidly declined in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Early Old English (c.450- c.850): The English language developed after the Anglo-Saxon invasion c. 449 AD, when the Romans left Britain and new settlers brought Germanic dialects from mainland Europe. Latin was still an important written language for the Church.
• Later Old English (c.850-1100): This was a time of invasion and settlement from Scandinavia and a time of language change. In the north of England, dialects of English were extensively influenced by Scandinavian languages. In the south, King Alfred arranged for many Latin texts to be translated into English.
• Middle English (c.1100-1450): The Norman Conquest (1066) and rule brought French as an official language in England. Educated people probably needed to be trilingual in French, Latin, and English. It was a flourishing period for English literature (e.g., Geoffrey Chaucer).
• Early Modern English (c.1450-1750): It is the period when the nation states of Europe took their modern form (the Elizabethan Era). The role of the Church and Latin declined. In England, key institutions of science, like the Royal Society, were established. Britain grew commercially and acquired overseas colonies. English was taken to the Americas and India. Teaching English as a foreign language began in the 16th century, first in Holland and France.
• Modern English (c.1750-1950): English had become a 'national' language. The industrial revolution made English the international language of advertising and consumerism, linking English-speaking communities around the world and establishing English as the major language for wire services. English-medium education was introduced in many parts of the world. English emerged as the most popular working language for transnational institutions.
• Late Modern English (c.1950-): Partially standardised varieties of English have emerged in newly independent countries. ELT (English Language Teaching) has become a major private-sector industry. In the aftermath of World War II, the US became a global economic and cultural presence with their language.