Materiale per l'esame di lingua Inglese, docente Valentina Rossi

WHICH

We use the relative pronoun “which” to refer to things or animals. We can use which in

defining or non-defining clauses. “Which” can have a preposition before it, such as “for”

Here’s a book which explains the causes of global warming.

or “to”: e.g.

In this case “which” introduces a defining relative clause. It has the same function

as “that”.

Charlotte gave me some great advice, for which I am very grateful. Charlotte

OR

gave me some advice, which I really appreciate.

WHO

We use the relative pronoun “who” to refer to a person. We can use it is defining and

non-defining relative clauses.

I like the guy who works in the marketing department.

e.g. Here we use “who” to introduce a defining relative clause, describing the man in

the main clause. It is a defining clause because the information it contains is

fundamental to the meaning of the Sentence.

Peter introduced me to his friend, who had just come back from Spain.

In this case we use “who” to introduce a non-defining relative clause. The

information it contains Is not fundamental to the meaning of the main clause.

WHOM

We use the relative pronoun “whom” to refer to a person, when the person is the object

of the verb. I

However, as whom is very formal it is not often used in spoken English: e.g.

discovered whom Joe was visiting.

This sentence is grammatically correct, but has a formal tone.

I discovered who Joe was visiting.

This sentence is less technically correct, but has a more neutral tone. We generally

use this tone when speaking.

WHOSE

We use the relative pronoun “whose” to refer to a characteristic or a possession of the

noun in the main clause:

This is the man whose car was stolen last week.

e.g. She is the girl whose incredible talent allowed her to win the prize.

WHEN That

We use the relative pronoun “when” to refer to a moment or a period in time. e.g.

was the moment when I realized I had lost my keys.

WHERE Here is

We use the pronoun “where” to refer to a place or a geographical location: e.g.

the park where I run on Saturdays.

WHY That is the reason why I quit my

We use the pronoun “why” to refer to a reason. e.g.

job.

Omitting the relative pronoun

In Italian the relative pronoun must always be used. However, in English the relative

pronoun can be omitted when it functions as the object. This basically means that if the

relative clause begins with a pronoun or a name, the relative pronoun before it is not

necessary.

She is the girl who/that I spoke to this morning. She is the girl I spoke to this

e.g.

morning.

That is the ornament which/that he broke.

That is the ornament he broke.

If the relative clause does not refer to a different person or thing, but shares the same

subject as the main clause, we cannot omit the relative pronoun:

He is the man who lives in the big house.

e.g. We cannot say “He is the man lives in the big house”. We need the relative

pronoun to connect

The two clauses and show where one ends and the other begins. When the subject

of the relative Clause is different from that of the main clause it is not necessary

to use the relative pronoun, because the noun or pronoun clearly indicates that the

relative pronoun is starting.

The relative pronoun “whose” can never be omitted.

Relative clauses with participles: past and present

Relative clauses can sometimes use a present participle, ending in “ing” or a past

participle ending in “ed” instead of a relative pronoun and a finite verb:

Present participles

e.g. Sam wrote me a note saying that he would be home late Sam wrote me a

note that said he would be home late.

Who is the girl sitting on the grass?

Who is the girl that is sitting on the grass?

The present participle generally indicates that the action of the main clause is

happening at the same time as the action in the relative clause.

Past participles

e.g. All the people nominated for awards were very excited.

All the people who were nominated for awards were very excited.

The dish cooked by the head chef was delicious.

The dish that was cooked by the head chef was delicious.

The past participle indicates that the relative clause refers to the past.

MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs are a group of auxiliary verbs have special characteristics.

They are different from other verbs because they do not function in the same way and

do not follow a lot of the same rules. One difference is that they cannot be used in

certain moods or tenses: they don’t have an infinitive, a gerund, a present

participle or a past tense. As a result, they cannot be used in composed tenses

(such as the present continuous or the present perfect), in the future, or, in most

cases, in the past simple. For this reason we have to replace them with alternative

verbs when we want to use these tenses or moods.

The modal verbs are:

Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Shall, Should, Ought to, Will, Would

Each modal verb has specific functions to express fundamental meanings such as

possibility, ability, permission, obligation, and certainty.

We are going to examine the grammatical characteristics of modal verbs in general and

the specific meanings and functions of the various modal verbs. We will also look at the

verbs that can be used in the place of modal verbs in order to talk about the past, the

future and other moods.

Main characteristics

As we have already mentioned, modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that work differently

from other auxiliaries and follow different rules.

Let’s look at the specific rules that we follow when using modal verbs: s

- Modal verbs do not change. This means that we do not add an for the

third person singular:

Julia can play the piano

e.g. (NOT Julia cans play the piano)

ed ing

It also means that we cannot add or

- Modal verbs are followed by the base form of the verb, which is the

to

infinitive without (also called the bare infinitive)

You must take your passport to the airport

e.g. Mr. Roberts should correct the test before tomorrow

not

- Modal verbs are immediately followed by in the negative. In

conversation and in informal writing we can also use the contracted form:

We could not find the car keys – We couldn’t find the car keys I will not forget

e.g.

– I won’t forget

- Modal verbs go before the subject in interrogative sentences (questions):

Can I help you?

e.g.

Shall we go?

Would you bring me a glass of water?

Remember that the verb ought to, which is synonymous with should, is different from

the other modal verbs because it uses to before the infinitive of the verb:

You ought to eat more healthily

e.g. She ought to know the answer

Can and Could

Both these verbs indicate ability in some way. Can is used to refer to present ability,

while could is used to refer to past ability:

Beth can speak Spanish really well now

e.g. When I was younger I could run much faster than I can now

Can and could are used:

- To indicate that you know how to do something:

Stella can cook great Italian food

e.g. Hugo can repair electrical equipment

- To show ability to do something. The difference between can and to be

able to is that can indicates ability of a more general nature, including the

meaning of to be permitted to, whereas to be able to generally refers to the

Finn can lift 40 kg

ability to do something in a particular situation: e.g.

When I was at school I could recite lots of poetry You look really tired. Are you

able to drive? can could

- To ask for permission. The difference between and is that could

may

is more tentative and less strong than can. We can also use to ask for

permission, and this is more formal:

Can I borrow your bike, Dad?

e.g. Could I have another copy of the certificate, please? May I leave a little early?

- To express the possibility of an action in the future, especially related to

may

plans or projects. This is different from which expresses uncertainty about a

We can go shopping on Friday afternoon since we’re

possibility in the future: e.g.

both free.

We could go shopping on Friday afternoon since we’re both free.

We may go shopping on Friday afternoon, but it depends if I finish work early.

- To express the possibility of an action in the present:

You can swim in this lake, it’s safe.

e.g. You could swim in this lake, but it’s quite cold.

- To talk about actions that were possible, but didn’t happen. In these cases

we use could + have + past participle:

I could have taken the bus, but I decided to walk

e.g. - To speculate about actions that have recently taken place. In these cases

we use have + past participle:

Who could / can have taken my wallet?

e.g. (I don’t know who took my wallet and I am

inviting someone to guess who did it based on the information we have)

can cannot. can’t.

The negative form of is We can use the contracted form which is

could could not. couldn’t.

The negative form of is The contracted form is

May and Might

May might

and can be used in requests and to express possibility for the present and

future. may might.

Let’s look in more detail at the different way in which we use and

May can:

- is used to ask for permission in a more formal way than

May I borrow your pen for a moment?

e.g. May I ask you a couple of questions, please?

Might

- is sometimes used in formal situations:

Might I offer you a piece of advice?

e.g. May

- is used to give permission, and is used applied to you, he, she, they

and proper nouns. It shows that the speaker is allowing something to happen:

You may leave now.

e.g. Students may download the course materials after matriculation.

may might

- Both and are used to express the possibility of a future action.

Might may:

is more tentative than

It may / might rain tomorrow.

e.g. There may / might be an opportunity for promotion in my department. We may

/ might go to the Matisse exhibition this afternoon.

May

- is often used to be polite and to make an order seem like a request.

Might is used to create distance between the speaker and the request:

You may need to rewrite the conclusion of your essay. You might want to

e.g.

consider an alternative solution.

You might give more thought to your exercise regime.

may may not. mayn’t,

The negative form of is The contracted form is but it is not used

very often. might might not. mightn’t.

The negative form of is The contracted form is

Must must

The modal verb is used to express obligation, give orders and give strong

recommendations and make deductions. It can only be used to talk about the present

to have to.

and future. When we wan