Riassunto esame Mass Media, prof. Baseotto, libro consigliato British Civilization, Oakland

Chapter 1: The country

Geographical identities

The country's title for constitutional and political purposes is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with the short form of UK. It is part of those islands, known geographically as the British Isles. The mainlands of England, Scotland and Wales form the largest island with the political title of Great Britain. Northern Ireland shares the second-largest island with the Republic of Ireland (Ireland or Eire), which has been independent of Britain since 1921-22.

On a smaller level of geographical identification, Britain is often divided up into regions. These are not the same as local government structure. “Regionalism” and “localism”, as cultural factors, are significant in British life, but opinions differ on how strong they actually are. They can illustrate a sense of belonging, which becomes more evident with increasing distance from London and the UK government. They may reflect a determination by regional or local populations to assert their individual identities. These have increased in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland with the devolution of political power from London and the establishment of a Parliament in Edinburgh and Assemblies in Cardiff and Belfast. Devolution has also provoked demands for greater autonomy in some English regions such as the north-east.

Physical features and climate

Britain's physical features have influenced human settlement, population movements, military conquest, political union, exploitation of industry, transport system, agriculture, fisheries, woodlands, energy supplies, pollution and weather change. In recent years, the countryside has become a fierce political issue.

In Britain, there has historically been a tension between urban and rural culture but many people feel a traditional nostalgia and identity for the countryside. Britain possesses a great diversity of physical features. Britain was originally part of the European mainland. But the melting of the glaciers in the last Ice Age caused the sea level to rise. The country was separated from the continent by the North Sea and by the English Channel. The shortest stretch of water between the two land masses is now the Strait of Dover between Dover in southern England and Calais in France. There are also many bays, inlets, peninsulas and estuaries along the coasts.

Britain's physical relief can be divided into highland and lowland. The highland consists of older, harder rocks created by ancient earth movements. The lowland comprises younger, softer materials formed by weathering processes, which have produced fertile soils and good agricultural land.

• England: It consists mainly of undulating or flat lowland countryside, with highland areas in the north and south-west. The heaviest population concentrations centre on the largest towns and cities.
• Wales: It is a highland country, with moorland plateau, hills and mountains, which are often broken by deep river valleys. The lowland zones are restricted to the narrow coastal belts and to the lower parts of the river valleys in south Wales, where two-thirds of the Welsh population live. The chief urban concentrations of people and industry are around the bigger southern cities, such as the capital Cardiff, Swansea and Newport.
• Scotland: It may be divided into three main areas. The first is the North-West and Central Highlands, together with a number of islands off the west and north-east coasts. These areas are thinly populated. The second is the central lowlands. The third is the Southern Uplands, which cover a number of hill ranges stretching towards the border with England. The climate, isolation and harsh physical conditions in much of Scotland have made conquest, settlement and agriculture difficult.
• Northern Ireland: It generally has a sparse and scattered population and is a largely rural country. The capital is Belfast.

The relative smallness of the country and the influences of a warm sea and westerly winds mean that there are no extreme contrasts in temperature throughout Britain. The climate is mainly temperate, but with variations between coolness and mildness.

Agriculture, fisheries and forestry

• Agriculture: Soils vary in quality from the thin, poor ones of highland Britain to the rich, fertile land of low-lying areas in eastern and southern England. Britain's long agricultural history includes a series of farming revolutions from Neolithic times. Agriculture provides two-thirds of Britain's food needs and its exports are important. Agriculture is still a significant industry and organized interest group. It is productive, intensive, mechanized and specialized. But farming is now in crisis owing to the high value of the pound. Animals have been lost, farming income has been seriously reduced and many farmers have left the industry or turned to non-farming activities.
• Fisheries: Britain is one of Europe's leading fishing nations and operates in the North Sea, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic. The fishing industry is important to the national economy and is centred on a number of ports around the coasts. Employment in and income from fishing have declined substantially in recent years.
• Forestry: Woodlands comprise 10 per cent of the UK. The country is heavily dependent upon wood imports. New plantings, controlled felling, expansion of timber industries and profitable private sector may reduce Britain's present dependence upon imports and benefits the environment.

Energy resources

Primary energy sources are oil, gas, nuclear/hydro power and coal. The most important secondary source is electricity, but there are problems with energy sources and concerns about pollution and environmental damage. Most energy industries have now been privatized, but there is criticism about their services and regulation. Coal is an important natural energy resource, but there are objections to its use on pollution and cost grounds. Alternative forms of renewable energy are becoming more important. Electricity generation by wind power is already operative. The use of tidal and wave power is being implemented on some coasts and estuaries and solar energy is already provided, with plans for more research.

Transport and communications

• Transport: Central and local government agencies are responsible for different roads in the road network. Expansion, modernization and repair of roads are environmentally damaging and may also be inadequate to meet the estimated future number of vehicles. Car transport is most popular. Britain has one of the highest densities of road traffic in the world, but also a relatively good safety record in which road accidents continue to decrease. Public bus services have declined because of increased private car usage and costs. Rail passenger services consist of a fast inter-city network, linking all the main British centres. Expansion of existing airports and the provision of new ones will be necessary if Britain is to cope with increased consumer demand and competition from Europe. But such projects are very expensive and controversial because of environmental problems, such as construction work, noise, pollution and traffic.
• Communications: Communications systems in Britain are also divided between the public and private sectors. The main suppliers are private telecommunications companies and the public Post Office. Telecommunications is one of the most competitive and rapidly expanding sectors of the economy.

Attitudes to the environment

There is considerable public concern about pollution, traffic congestion, the quality of the natural habitat, the use of energy sources and the safety of agricultural products. Agricultural, forest and other greenfield land is increasingly used for building and recreational purposes. Environmental problems should be tackled, and many are prepared to make sacrifices to clean up the environment and conserve wildlife. But such views do not always lead to sensitive behaviour and there is widespread vandalism and dirtiness in both rural and urban areas. The car is now seen as the greatest transport problem. But governments have not provided an integrated transport system which would relieve environmental pressures. The problem arises because of the varied geography of Britain's cities and the devolution of control to local authorities.

Chapter 2: The people

The contemporary British are composed of people from worldwide origins and are divided into what became the English, Scots, Welsh and Northern Irish. But these groups often have mixed roots derived from varied settlement, internal migration and assimilation. Such descent patterns are important elements in considering the ethnicities of the British today. The English language is a blend of Germanic, Romance and other world languages.

Early settlement to AD 1066

The first people were probably Paleolithic nomads from mainland Europe, who were characterized by their use of rudimentary stone implements. They travelled to Britain by land and sea, especially at those times when the country was joined to the European land mass. Later settlers in Mesolithic and Neolithic times had more advanced skills. Some came from central Europe and settled in eastern Britain. Others arrived by sea from Iberian (Spanish-Portuguese) areas and populated Cornwall, Ireland, Wales, the Isle of Man and western Scotland.

The Celts possessed at least two main languages and were divided into many different tribes with conflicts between them. Celtic civilization dominated the British-Irish Isles until it was overcome by Belgic tribes around 200 BC. The Belgic tribes were then subjected to a series of Roman expeditions from 55 BC. The term “Britain” derives from the Greek and Latin names given to England and Wales by the Romans, although it may stem from Celtic originals. It is argued that the Romans did not mix with the existing population and that their lasting influence was slight.

After Romans, Germanic tribes such as Angles, Saxons and Jutes from north-western Europe invaded the country. Many regions suffered from Scandinavian (Viking) military invasions in the eighth and ninth centuries, until the Scandinavians were defeated in England, Scotland and Ireland in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Early English history was completed when the Anglo-Saxons were defeated by French-Norman invaders at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and England was subjected to their rule. The Norman conquest marked the last successful external military invasion of the country. It influenced the English people and their language and initiated many of the social, legal and institutional frameworks, such as the feudal system. But Celtic civilizations continued in what are now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Roman rule did not extend to Scotland, which was inhabited by the original Picts and the later Scots from Ireland who colonized western Scotland.

The early settlement and invasion movements substantially affected the developing fabric of British life and formed the first foundations of the modern state. They also profoundly influenced social, legal, economic, political, agricultural and administrative institutions and contributed to the evolving language.

Growth and immigration to the twentieth century

The British state gradually developed through colonization and political unification. This process was accompanied by fierce and bloody conflicts between the nations, often resulting in lasting tensions and bitterness. Political and military attempts were made by England to unite Wales, Scotland and Ireland under the English Crown. English monarchs tried to conquer or ally themselves with these other countries as a protection against threats from within the island and from continental Europe, as well as for increased power and possessions.

Ireland was invaded by Henry II in 1169. Much of the country was then controlled by Anglo-Norman nobles but little direct authority was initially exercised from England. Ireland later became part of the UK in 1801 but after a period of violence and political unrest, was divided in 1921-22 into the independent Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland (which is part of the UK). Wales, after Roman rule, remained a Celtic country. Between 1282 and 1285, Edward I's military campaign brought Wales under English rule. Wales was integrated legally and administratively with England by Acts of Union 1536-42.

The English also tried to conquer Scotland by military force but were repulsed at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. Scotland was then to remain independent until the political union between the two countries in 1707 when the creation of Great Britain (England/Wales and Scotland) took place. But Scotland and England had shared a common monarch since 1603 when James VI of Scotland became James I of England. England, Wales and Scotland had meanwhile become predominantly Protestant in religion as a result of the European Reformation.