Appunti sugli autori di Letteratura inglese

I.

Despite his political success, Bacon’s career ended in disgrace when he was charged with

corruption in 1621, leading to his fall from favor. Nevertheless, his intellectual contributions

continued to influence philosophy and science long after his death.

Bacon lived during the transformative era of the late Renaissance, witnessing the rise of

empirical inquiry, exploration, and the questioning of traditional authorities.

Thought and Literary Vision

Bacon’s thought centers on the reform of knowledge and the advancement of learning for

human benefit. He is considered one of the fathers of empiricism, advocating observation,

experimentation, and inductive reasoning as the path to true understanding of nature.

His literary vision is intertwined with his philosophy: prose should be clear, concise, and

effective to educate and persuade. Bacon’s writings seek to liberate human knowledge from

superstition and scholasticism, replacing it with a practical and systematic approach.

He saw knowledge as power and aimed to create a framework where scientific inquiry could

improve human life, politics, and morality. His work foreshadowed the Enlightenment and

modern scientific thought.

Major Works and Their Explanations

Novum Organum (1620)​

The Novum Organum (“New Instrument”) is Bacon’s most famous philosophical work,

intended as part of a larger project called Instauratio Magna (“Great Renewal”). In this text,

Bacon critiques the prevailing Aristotelian logic and advocates for a new method of inquiry

based on inductive reasoning.

Rather than starting with abstract principles, Bacon argues that knowledge must begin with

careful observation and systematic collection of data, from which general laws can be

inferred. He introduces the concept of “Idols”—cognitive biases and errors that obstruct true

understanding—including the Idols of the Tribe (human nature), the Cave (individual biases),

the Marketplace (language and communication), and the Theatre (philosophical dogmas).

Novum Organum does not follow a traditional narrative but systematically lays out the

principles of this new scientific method, emphasizing the need for empirical testing and

skepticism toward assumptions. It is a foundational text in the history of science, marking a

decisive break with medieval scholasticism.

The Advancement of Learning (1605)​

This treatise outlines Bacon’s vision for reforming the sciences and humanities. He critiques

existing knowledge as fragmented and outdated and calls for a comprehensive and unified

study of nature and human affairs.

The work is structured as an argument advocating the expansion of empirical research and

institutional support for learning. Bacon argues that knowledge should serve practical

purposes—improving health, industry, and governance—and that scholars must embrace

experimentation.

Although more philosophical than narrative, the treatise contains vivid examples and

critiques of contemporary learning, envisioning a future where human progress is driven by

science and rational inquiry.

Essays (First edition 1597, expanded in 1612 and 1625)​

Bacon’s Essays are a collection of short, didactic prose pieces on topics ranging from

politics, religion, and morality to friendship, ambition, and truth. Unlike the grand

philosophical treatises, these essays combine personal observation with aphoristic wisdom.

Each essay explores a particular theme through reflections, examples from history and

literature, and moral advice. For instance, “Of Studies” argues for the balanced use of

reading as a tool for practical life, while “Of Truth” meditates on the human attraction to

falsehood versus the value of honesty.

The essays display Bacon’s mastery of clear, persuasive prose and remain celebrated as

foundational works of English essay writing.

Style and Language

Bacon’s prose style is marked by clarity, precision, and conciseness. He pioneered a form of

English writing that combines rhetorical elegance with logical rigor, suitable for both

philosophical discourse and practical advice.

His style favors aphorisms, parallel structures, and balanced sentences that lend weight and

memorability to his ideas. Bacon’s language is often metaphorical, drawing on images from

law, nature, and craftsmanship to illustrate abstract concepts concretely.

His writing avoids excessive ornamentation; instead, it aims to be accessible and instructive,

reflecting his belief that prose should serve knowledge and utility.

Conclusion

Francis Bacon stands as a pivotal figure in the transition from Renaissance humanism to

modern empiricism. His intellectual legacy reshaped the methods of scientific inquiry and the

style of English prose, laying the groundwork for the Enlightenment.

Bacon’s life as a statesman and thinker was marked by ambition, brilliance, and controversy,

yet his works continue to inspire as blueprints for rational thought and practical wisdom. His

vision of knowledge as a tool for human improvement remains a guiding principle in

philosophy and science.

John Locke: Life, Works, Thought, and Style

John Locke (1632–1704) was a seminal English philosopher and physician, often regarded

as the father of Liberalism and a key figure in the Enlightenment. His ideas on government,

human understanding, and education deeply influenced modern Western thought, politics,

and philosophy.

Life and Career

Locke was born in Wrington, Somerset, England, into a Puritan family. He studied at Christ

Church, Oxford, where he was exposed to classical education but grew skeptical of the

scholastic traditions. His interests shifted toward medicine and natural philosophy, and he

developed ties with influential figures like Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper (later Earl of

Shaftesbury), whom he served as a personal physician and advisor.

Locke’s political career was intertwined with the tumultuous events of 17th-century England,

including the English Civil War, the Restoration, and the Glorious Revolution. His exile in the

Netherlands (due to his association with Shaftesbury) allowed him to write some of his most

important works. Returning to England, he spent his later years writing and influencing

political thought. His work responded directly to the political instability of his time, especially

absolutism and conflicts between monarchy and Parliament.

Thought and Literary Vision

Locke’s philosophy is characterized by empiricism and the idea that all human knowledge

derives from experience, not innate ideas. He sought to understand the human mind,

society, and government through reason and observation rather than tradition or dogma.

His political theory emphasizes natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the social contract,

arguing that government’s legitimacy rests on consent and its primary role is to protect

individual rights. This laid the foundation for modern democracy and constitutional

government, profoundly influencing the American Declaration of Independence and the

French Revolution.

Locke’s educational philosophy advocated for reason, critical thinking, and moral

development, opposing rote learning and authoritarian teaching.

In style, Locke is noted for clear, systematic prose aimed at accessibility and logical rigor,

intending to communicate complex ideas to both scholars and educated laymen.

Major Works and Their Explanations

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689)​

This foundational philosophical work investigates the nature and limits of human knowledge.

Locke systematically rejects the notion of innate ideas, arguing instead that the mind at birth

is a “tabula rasa” (blank slate), shaped entirely by sensory experience and reflection.

The book is divided into four books:

●​ Book I critiques innate knowledge, showing its untenability.​

●​ Book II develops the theory of ideas, explaining how simple ideas from experience

combine into complex ones.​

●​ Book III examines language, analyzing how words represent ideas and the causes of

misunderstanding.​

●​ Book IV addresses knowledge and belief, explaining the degrees of certainty and

how humans can gain knowledge about the world.​

Rather than a narrative, the Essay is a systematic inquiry into epistemology, shaping

empiricism and influencing later philosophers such as Berkeley and Hume.

Two Treatises of Government (1689)​

In the First Treatise, Locke attacks the doctrine of the divine right of kings, especially Robert

Filmer’s Patriarcha, which claimed monarchs derived authority from Adam.

The Second Treatise presents Locke’s positive political theory: all men are naturally free and

equal, living in a state of nature governed by natural law. To protect their rights, individuals

consent to form governments, which have limited powers. If governments violate their trust,

citizens have the right to revolt.

This work provides the philosophical foundation for constitutional government, separation of

powers, and individual rights, profoundly influencing liberal political theory, the American and

French revolutions, and modern democracy.

Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693)​

This treatise lays out Locke’s educational philosophy. He emphasizes the importance of

developing a child’s character, habits, and reason rather than mere memorization. Locke

advocates for practical learning, physical health, moral training, and encouragement of

curiosity.

His ideas on education influenced later pedagogical reforms and thinkers such as Rousseau

and Pestalozzi.

Style and Language

Locke’s prose is clear, orderly, and aimed at rational persuasion. His writing style avoids

unnecessary complexity, preferring direct argumentation and carefully defined terms.

He frequently uses examples and analogies to clarify abstract concepts, and his tone

remains generally calm, respectful, and reasoned. Locke’s style helped make philosophical

and political ideas accessible beyond the narrow circle of specialists.

Influence and Legacy

Locke’s political ideas laid the groundwork for liberal democracy and constitutionalism

worldwide. His theories influenced the American Founding Fathers and inspired key

documents such as the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. In

philosophy, his empiricism challenged prior metaphysical traditions and paved the way for

later thinkers like David Hume and Immanuel Kant.

In education, Locke’s emphasis on experience and reason shaped modern pedagogical

approaches, encouraging critical thinking and individual development.

Conclusion

John Locke’s contributions mark a turning point in philosophy, political theory, and education.

His empiricism revolutionized epistemology by insisting on experience as the foundation of

knowledge, while his political writings laid the groundwork for liberal democracy and

constitutional government.

Locke’s vision of individual rights, government by co