Paniere risposte aperte e chiuse Lingua e traduzione inglese 2

English. Old English refers to a period that goes from approximately 450 to 1150 AD,

called the "period of full inflections." It’s important to note that Old English was not a

completely uniform language; rather, it included several distinct dialects, such as

Northumbrian and Mercian (spoken by the Angles), West Saxon (the only dialect with

an extensive collection of texts), and Kentish (spoken by the Jutes). Reading Old

English requires specialized study, as it differs significantly from Modern English in

terms of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling. Old English had a

synthetic structure, relying heavily on inflections rather than word order, in contrast to

the more analytic structure of Modern English. It contained three grammatical genders

(masculine, feminine, and neuter) with nouns classified accordingly, though this

classification did not always align with natural gender. Additionally, Old English had

four cases—nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative—and employed complex

declension patterns for nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Verb conjugation was also

complex, distinguishing between strong and weak verbs; strong verbs changed their

vowel to form the past tense, while weak verbs added a suffix. The vocabulary of Old

English was predominantly Germanic, with few loanwords from Latin and no French

influences, resulting in a largely native lexicon.

Provide the main significant traits of Modern English

Modern English, which began around 1500, is characterized by a simplified inflectional

system, earning it the name "the period of lost inflections." This period was

significantly influenced by the invention of the printing press, which not only spread

literacy and standardized English spelling and grammar but also elevated London

English as the national standard. The expansion of vocabulary included numerous

loanwords, particularly from Latin and Greek due to Renaissance scholarship. This

borrowing process led to debates over the use of "inkhorn terms"—classical

borrowings that some found excessive. Despite resistance, many of these terms

became lasting parts of English. Modern English also saw the publication of the first

English dictionary in 1604, solidifying the language’s written form and setting the

stage for English as a global language.

Provide the main significant changes from Middle to Early Modern English

The transition from Middle to Early Modern English, spanning roughly from the late

15th to the 17th century, involved significant changes in pronunciation, vocabulary,

and grammar. The Great Vowel Shift, a series of phonetic changes where long vowels

were raised or diphthongized, altered English pronunciation and differentiated it from

Middle English. Additionally, the Renaissance brought an influx of Latin and Greek

terms, enriching the lexicon with new scientific, philosophical, and literary expressions.

The standardization process also accelerated, influenced by the printing press, which

popularized the London dialect and began to unify spelling conventions. As a result,

Early Modern English became more accessible and familiar to modern readers, with

Shakespeare’s works as a notable example, whereas earlier Middle English texts, like

Chaucer’s, remained challenging for the average reader.

Provide the main features of Global English

Global English has become a true lingua franca, serving as a primary communication

tool in many countries where it is not the native language. Its defining traits include

widespread international usage, particularly in areas like business, diplomacy,

technology, and science. It is spoken in over 90 countries and it is the official working

language for international organizations such as ASEAN. English also dominates fields

like scientific research, computing, and science, helping professionals collaborate

across the world. With over a billion learners worldwide, English has become a

fundamental part of education systems globally. Geographically, its influence goes

from the UK, USA, and Australia to India and large parts of Africa. Unlike Chinese,

which remains mostly regional, English is truly global in its reach. Its extensive

international spread means that sectors like global business, diplomacy, air traffic

control, and software development all rely on English, establishing it as the world’s

most widely used international language.

What is the Great Vowel Shift? What does it imply?

The Great Vowel Shift greatly influenced both English spelling and pronunciation and it

played a significant role in the evolution from Middle English to Modern English.

Beginning around 1400, this shift marked a major transformation in pronunciation that

unfolded relatively quickly, with most significant changes happening within a century.

However, the shift is still technically ongoing, as vowel sounds continue to shorten,

although these changes now progress at a much slower, more gradual over time.

What are the main features of early modern English?

Early Modern English, spanning from about 1500 to 1800, is distinguished by

significant linguistic and cultural developments, including the Great Vowel Shift, which

transformed the pronunciation of long vowels and moved English closer to its modern

form. This period also saw an influx of Latin and Greek terms due to the Renaissance

revival of classical learning, which enriched English vocabulary, particularly in science,

philosophy, and the arts. The invention of the printing press around 1476 standardized

spelling and grammar, with London dialect becoming the dominant written form.

Additionally, the period produced extensive literature, with writers like Shakespeare,

whose works are still widely comprehensible today. The first English dictionary,

published in 1604, contributed to further language standardization.

What are the main features of Middle English?

Middle English, spoken from around 1150 to 1500, emerged after the Norman

Conquest of 1066, which heavily influenced the language with French vocabulary,

especially in law, governance, and culture. During this time, the complex inflectional

system of Old English simplified considerably, marking it as the "period of leveled

inflections." Regional dialects were diverse, with no standard written form initially;

however, by the late 14th century, the London dialect began to gain influence as a

standard, partially due to economic and political centralization. Middle English

Canterbury Tales,

literature, such as Chaucer’s offers insights into the language’s

structure and vocabulary, though it remains challenging for modern readers. The Great

Vowel Shift began in this period, setting the stage for the phonological changes that

would lead into Early Modern English.

What is the difference between first-language and second-language

speakers?

First-language (L1) speakers are those who acquire English early in life, typically in the

home environment, making it their native language. This early exposure generally

Second-language

leads to a more intuitive and nuanced command of the language.

(L2) speakers, on the other hand, learn English later in life, often in an educational or

social context outside the home, which can influence their proficiency level and the

way they internalize linguistic rules. This distinction is not absolute, as societal factors,

such as the accent or the racial background of the speaker, may sometimes blur the

lines between native and non-native classifications.

What is the difference between an accent and a dialect?

The difference between an accent and a dialect lies in the aspects of language each

one includes. An accent refers exclusively to pronunciation, the specific way words are

spoken. A dialect, however, includes not just pronunciation but also unique

grammatical structures and vocabulary associated with a particular language variety.

Speaking in a certain dialect means using a specific pronunciation style, but it also

involves distinct grammar and word choices, going beyond just accent.

Provide the main differences between English as a second language, and

English as a foreign language.

English as a second language (ESL) is used in countries where English holds an official

status and is widely employed in government, business, law, and education. In these

nations, such as India, Nigeria, and the Philippines, English is essential for

communication within the country itself. In contrast, English as a foreign language

(EFL) is typically learned in countries where English has no official status and is mainly

used for communication with foreigners, especially in business, travel, and academia.

In EFL settings, such as in many European and East Asian countries, English is not part

of daily life, and proficiency is often aimed at facilitating interaction beyond national

borders. Thus, ESL serves as an internal communicative tool within a multilingual

society, whereas EFL is a bridge for external interactions.

English as a Second Language (ESL) is used within countries where English has an

official or widely accepted role in education, government, or media. In contrast,

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) is typically learned for communication with non-

native speakers, often without official status within the learner’s country.

Why may Indian English be called a ‘New English’? Given that it probably

dates back to 1800 or so, what objection may be made?

Indian English is considered a "New English" because it has evolved as a distinct form

of English in a postcolonial context, widely used across India in government, business,

and education. Although its roots trace back to around 1800, some might argue it’s

not truly “new” due to its long-standing history. However, its development within a

unique cultural framework justifies its classification as a New English variety.

Using your own examples, illustrate some characteristic differences between

British and American English

British and American English have several phonetic, lexical, and grammatical

Lexically, fall

differences. Americans use for the autumn season, while the British

autumn. t city

retained In pronunciation, the sound in words like often becomes a tap

d.

sound in American English, making it sound closer to a soft Grammatically,

Americans might say, “Did you call her yet?” while British English would use the

present perfect, “Have you called her yet?”. These examples illustrate how English

varieties adapt based on regional usage and cultural influences.

Think of some new words in English and describe their origin and coinage.

New words frequently appear through derivation, where prefixes or suffixes are

attached to existing words to convey new meanings. For instance, the word "ghosting"

(the act of suddenly cutting off all communication with someone) has become

widespread, especially in discussions about online interactions and dating. This term

likely emerged from the image of someone disappearing like a ghost. Another exa