Linguistica inglese

THE MORPHEME

The morpheme is the minimal unit of grammatial desiripton in the sense that it iannot be segmented any

further at the grammatial level of analysis

Free vs bound morphemes

In English most roots are free morphemes

The phonologiial variant of a morpheme is ialled allomorph

Bound morphemes are also ialled affixes. Affixes that are added to the beginning of a word are prefxes,

affixes that are added to the end of a word are suffixes. Affixes are either ineexional or derivatonal.

Ineexional affixes mark distnitons suih as the singular-plural iontrast in nouns and the present tense-past

tense iontrast in verbs. Derivatonal affixes are added to the root or stem in order to produie a new word

(king > king-dom(. Prefxes are always derivatonal and many of them are non-ilass-ihanging. Suffixes are

either derivatonal or ineexional, the majority of derivatonal suffixes are ilass-ihanging.

THE WORD

Words ian be grouped together into words ilasses (also ialled parts of the speech(. Words of the same

ilass share a number of propertes. Word ilass membership depends on morphologiial and syntaiti

propertes. Morphologiial if the word in queston has ineexional and/or derivatonal affixes typiial of that

ilass, syntaiti upon the typiial ways in whiih a member of a ilass funitons in sentenies and phrases.

Syntaiti iriteria more important than morphologiial ones sinie the morphology of English words does not

always enable us to assign them to a partiular ilass

Many English words, ionsidered in isolaton, iannot be ilassifed. It’s ialled ionversion the phenomenon in

whiih a word belonging primarily to a ilass is used in a funiton assoiiated with another ilass. It’s ialled

multple membership when a word belong to more than one ilass at the same tme.

Distniton between open ilasses (noun, adjeitves, adverbs, verbs( and ilosed ilasses (prepositons,

ionjunitons, artiles, numerals, pronouns, quantfers, interjeitons( in open ilasses the membership is

unrestriited and indefnitely large sinie they allow the ireaton of new members, in ilosed ilasses the

membership is restriited sinie they do not allow the ireaton of new members and the number of items

they iomprise is so small that it ian be listed

Nouns are identfable on the basis of typiial derivatonal suffixes, moreover most nouns ian take typiial

ineexional suffixes (one to mark the number, one to mark the iase(

The plural morpheme {s } is realized in three wayss

1

 /s/ afer bases ending in voiieless sounds exiept sibilants (books, roofs, eti.(

 /z/ afer bases ending in voiied sounds exiept sibilants (trees, bars, eti.(

 /ɪz/ afer bases ending in a sibilant (horses, noises, brushes, mirages, eti.(

Exiepton to the rules

1. Change in the base + regular suffixs

/θ/ /ð/ + /z/ s baths, mouths, paths

--->

/f/ /v/ + /z/ s halves, knives, thieves

--->

/s/ /z/ + /ɪz/ s houses

--->

2. Change in the base without a suffix ( mutaton(s

foot feet; louse liie; man men;

- - -

3. No ihange ( zero plural(s

deer, grouse, speiies, Chinese, Portuguese, (air(iraf

4. plural

-en

ihild ihildren (with mutaton(

-

ox oxen (without mutaton(

-

The spelling of the regular plural of English nouns is s or es. The latter spelling is found ins

- -

1. words ending in and -x (gases, dresses, waltzes, matihes, wishes, boxes(

-s, -z, -ih, -sh

2. many words ending in a ionsonant symbol + (eihoes, potatoes, tomatoes - but notes kilos,

-o

photos, pianos(

The spelling is also found in the following two iases, where the spelling of the base is afeiteds

-(e(s

1. in words ending in a ionsonant symbol + where y ihanges into i (bodies, iountries, eies(

-y,

2. in the following words, where the f of the base is ihanged into vs ialves, halves, knives, lives, wives,

leaves, sheaves, thieves, loaves, wolves, elves, selves, shelves.

Foreign words in English form their plural in three diferent ways

 There are those that take a regular natve plural (dilemma - dilemmas(

 Some foreign words take both a natve and a foreign plural (formula formulas - formulae(

>

 There are foreign words that take a foreign plural only (analysis – analyses(

The genitve is one of the two iases of the English noun, the other being the iommon (or unmarked( iase.

In the singular the genitve morpheme {s } is regularly realized in three wayss

2

 /s/ afer bases ending in voiieless sounds exiept sibilants (Diik - Diikss iar(

 /z/ afer bases ending in voiied sounds exiept sibilants (Fred Fredss salary(

-

 /ɪz/ afer bases ending in a sibilant (horse - a horsess tail(

 Proper nouns ending in /z/ take either /ɪz / or /Ø/, the regular form being /ɪz/ (Diikens Diikenss(s(

-

sdɪkɪnzɪz/ sdɪkɪnz(

-

The genitve singular suffix is realized by /Ø/ in two iasess

1. in a number of fxed expressions (for goodnesss sake, for Jesuss sake(

2. with Greek names of more than one syllable (Sophoiless plays(

In the plural the genitve morpheme is realized in two wayss

1. /z/ with irregular plurals not ending in (men - menss ilothes(

-s

2. /Ø/ in all other iases (boys - a boyss sihool(

The spelling of the genitve suffix in both the singular and the plural is either ss or s.

Nouns ian be subdivided intos

1. iommon nouns; these are further subdivided into iount nouns and mass nouns;

2. proper nouns.

Proper nouns do not oiiur in the plural and iannot be preieded by numerals and by quantfers suih as

many, few, several, muih and little. Nor ian they be preieded by the defnite and indefnite artiles.

Count nouns have plurals and ian be iolloiated with numerals, the quantfers many, few, several , the def.

and indef. artile. Mass nouns are iolloiated with the quantfers much , little and def. artile. Proper and

mass nouns in some iases ian be treated as iount nouns.

Many members of the ilass of adjeitves are identfable on the basis of typiial derivatonal suffixes. Many

adjeitves are also iharaiterized by the fait that they ineeit for the iomparatve and the superlatve.

Many adjeitves take ineexional suffixes to form the iomparatve ( er( and the superlatve degrees ( est(.

- -

Comparison by ineexion is iharaiteristi of monosyllabii adjeitves (bright brighter brightest(. These

- -

suffixes are also found with many disyllabii adjeitves, for example those that are stressed on the seiond

syllable and those ending in er, le, ow and y (narrow narrower narrowest(.

- - - - - -

A number of adjeitves have irregular degrees of iomparison. Among them are the followings

 bad worse worst

- -

 far - farther farthest

-

further - furthest

 good- better best

-

Adjeitves that do not ineeit for iomparison are modifed by more and most (expensive more expensive

- -

most expensive(

From a syntaiti point of view we ian distnguish between the attributve and the prediiatve use of

adjeitves. Most adjeitves ian be used attributvely as well as prediiatvely.

 Attributve adjeitves are ionsttuents of the noun phrase and preiede the noun phrase head.

 Prediiatve adjeitves funiton in the struiture of the sentenie as either subjeit attribute (the door

is green( or objeit attribute (we painted the door green(.

Attributve adjeitves normally preiedes the noun phrase head. In some iases they follow it (somebody

important(.

Apart from the majority of adjeitves whiih ian be used both attributvely and prediiatvely, there are

adjeitves that ian only be used in one of these ways ( the latter soluton(. Most adjeitves beginning with a -

are used prediiatvely only (alike(. Some adjeitves ian be used both attributvely and prediiatvely in one

meaning but are restriited to attributve use in another meaning (an old book – that book is old / an old

friend - *that friend is old(. In other iases there ian be a semanti diferenie between the attributve and

prediiatve use (his late wife – his wife is late(.

Many adverbs ian be identfed on the basis of typiial derivatonal suffixes. Some adverbs ineeit for

iomparison. Typiial derivatonal suffixes for adverbs ares

 s fully, intelligently, wisely

-ly

 s aferwards, homewards, upward(s(

-ward(s(

 s iloikwise, edgewise, lengthwise

-wise

Although is the most produitve of these suffixes, it should be borne in mind that not all words ending in

-ly

are adverbs. For instanie, words like beastly, friendly and lonely belong to the ilass of adjeitves.

-ly

Only a small number of adverbs ineeit for iomparison. The majority of these are idential in form with

adjeitves (early earlier earliest(.

- -

Syntaitially speaking we ian distnguish two major funitons of adverbs. They are either ionsttuents of

the sentenie, in whiih iase they funiton as adverbial or they modify the head in adjeitve and adverb

phrases.

When funitoning as sentenie ionsttuents adverbs express suih meanings as tme, plaie, manner and

degree (The plane arrived yesterday(. They ian also express the attude of the speaker towards what he is

saying (honestly, I don’t have any money lef(.

Adverbs also have a linking funiton between one sentenie and another (John was ill. Nevertheless he

turned up for the meetng(.

Adverbs ian also be ionsttuents of phrases. In this funiton they modify the head of an adjeitve or adverb

phrase.

 modifier of adjective phrase head > very interestng

 modifier of adverb phrase head > hardly ever

There are three derivatonal suffixes typiial of the ilass of verbss -en, -ify, -ize/ise

Most English verbs ian add four ineexional morphemes to the bases

 rd

{s }s 3 person singular present tense indiiatve

3

 {ed }s past tense

1

 {ed }s -ed partiiple

2

 {ing}s -ing partiiple

The present tense morpheme is regularized is three wayss

 /s/ afer bases ending in voiieless sounds exiept sibilants (walks, stops, eti.(

 /z/ afer bases ending in voiied sounds exiept sibilants (purrs, breathes, eti.(

 /ɪz/ afer bases ending in a sibilant (mixes, freezes, fshes, alleges, eti.(

The past tense morpheme {ed } and the -ed partiiple morpheme {ed } of regular verbs are realized in three

1 2

wayss

 /t/ afer bases ending in voiieless sounds exiept /t/ (kissed, tripped, eti.(

 /d/ afer bases ending in voiied sounds exiept /d/ (loathed, sinned, eti.(

 /ɪd/ afer bases ending in /t/ or /d/ (parted, loaded, eti.(

The -ing partiiple morpheme {ing} is always realized as / ɪŋ/ (playing, nodding, eti.(

The regular spelling of the present tense suffix {s } is -s or -es . The latter spelling is found ins

3

 Verbs ending in -s, -z, -ih, -sh, -x (hisses, buzzes, eti.(

 Verbs ending in a ionsonant + -o (eihoes, goes, eti.(

 Verbs ending in a ionsonant + -y (y ihanges into i( iries, faniies, eti.]

The regular spelling of the past tense and -ed partiiple suffixes {ed } and {ed } is -ed or -d. The latter

1 2

spelling when the verb ends in mute -e (loved, moved, eti.(

In some iases the spelling of the base is afeited before the ending -eds<