Linguistica inglese

Generativism

Noam Chomsky, it was originally a way to explain how humans acquire language, but soon it came to be used to explain the different phenomena that occur in all-natural languages. The generative theory of language suggests that language is made up of certain rules that apply to all humans and all languages. This led to the theory of "universal grammar", which affirms that all humans are capable of learning grammar. → is the last linguistic school of Cognitivism thought and it emerged in the 1950s as a reaction to generativism. To put it simply, cognitivism says that language emerges from human cognitive processes, it challenges "universal grammar" by suggesting that grammar is not something that all humans can inherently understand, but rather it is learned by using language. The main focus of cognitivism is how language is based on meaning that the mind creates.

Structuralism

Cognitivism

• Language is a collection
• Language is governed by

of habits

rules

• Performance is major
• Focus is on the norms
• Errors play a significant
• Errors are not accepted role in the acquisition
• Focus is on L2
• Works toward a universal differences grammar
• Focus is on surface
• Looks at both surface and structures rather than deep structure, incorporates meaning semantics

Language acquisition theories

Chomsky, Innatism

Chomsky considered language as a highly abstract generative phenomenon, he affirmed that human beings are born biologically equipped to learn a language and proposed his theory of a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), an inborn mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of a language; as a matter of fact, children do not need any kind of formal teaching to learn to speak or a trigger to begin language acquisition, it happens on its own. According to Chomsky, we are all born with 'universal grammar', an innate ability to understand the grammar of our first language. He argued that something

Specifically, about human language, it must be innate. It's available to us by virtue of being human, specified somehow in our genetic makeup (biological factors).

Skinner's Behaviourism

Skinner opposed Chomsky's linguistic theory with his behaviourist approach. He believed that behaviour explains the speaker's verbal activity as an effect of environmental possibilities (external factors). His thesis was that external factors consisting of present stimulation and the history of reinforcement, such as smiles, attention, and approval, are of overwhelming importance. Skinner argued that children learn language based on behaviourist reinforcement principles by associating words with meanings. Correct utterances are positively reinforced when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases.

Vygotsky vs. Piaget, Interactionism (or constructivism)

Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that children construct knowledge through action. Piaget emphasized the importance of social

Il tuo compito è formattare il testo fornito utilizzando tag html.

ATTENZIONE: non modificare il testo in altro modo, NON aggiungere commenti, NON utilizzare tag h1;

interaction to intellectual development.He proposed that cognitive development from infant to young adult occurs in fouruniversal and consecutive stages:sensorimotor → infants rely solely on action and the senses to know things1. preoperational → children can use symbols and internal thought to solve2. problemsconcrete operations → children3. are more abstract in their thinking (age 7-11);formal operations → adolescents and adults can think abstractly and4. hypothetically (11 through adulthood)Piaget proposed that social interaction takes place mainly to move a young child awayfrom egocentrism. As part of their cognitive development, children also developschemes, which are mental representations of people, objects, or principles. Theseschemes can be changed or altered through what Piaget called assimilation andaccommodation: assimilation is information we already know, while accommodationinvolves adapting one’s existing knowledge to what is perceived.

Disequilibrium occurs when new knowledge does not fit with one's accumulated knowledge and when one reaches what Piaget called equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation have occurred to create a new stage of development. Vygotsky believed that there was a closer relationship between language and thought than acknowledged by Piaget, and that there was an interactive relationship between language, thought, and social conditions; but while language and thought are distinct and develop independently, logical reasoning does not develop until language and thought fuse with the development of inner speech. According to Vygotsky, two developmental levels determine the learning process: egocentricity and interaction. We can look at what children do on their own and what they do while working with others: they mostly choose to remain silent or speak less on their own (less egocentric speech) when they are alone, but they prefer to speak to other children when they play games with them (more interactive speech).

egocentric speech). The difference between these two types of developmental forms has been called ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ and it refers to the distance between the actual developmental level, determined by independent problem solving, and the potential development level, determined by problem solving under adult guidance or in cooperation with more capable friends of the child.

Regarding the language development, Piaget considered private speech as egocentric or immature, while Vygotsky understood the importance of self-directed speech. Private speech is considered to be self-directed regulation and communication with the self, and becomes internalized after about nine years.

Second language acquisition theories (SLA)

The acculturation Model (Schuman)

The Acculturation Model, designed by Schumann in 1978, maintains that certain social and psychological variables cluster into a single variable, acculturation. The is defined as ‘the process of becoming adapted to a new

function of the learner's competence in the target language. According to this model, learners with a high level of competence in the target language are more likely to engage in meaningful interactions and acquire the language more effectively. The Interactionist ModelThe Interactionist Model, proposed by Long (1983), emphasizes the importance of interaction in SLA. According to this model, language learning occurs through meaningful communication and negotiation of meaning between learners and native speakers. This model highlights the role of input, interaction, and output in the language learning process. The Monitor ModelThe Monitor Model, proposed by Krashen (1982), suggests that language learning is influenced by conscious learning and subconscious acquisition. According to this model, learners use a monitor to edit and correct their language production based on their conscious knowledge of the language. However, the monitor is only effective in certain situations and does not play a significant role in spontaneous communication. The Sociocultural TheoryThe Sociocultural Theory, proposed by Vygotsky (1978), emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in language learning. According to this theory, language development is a result of social interaction and collaboration with more knowledgeable others. Learners acquire language through participation in meaningful activities and cultural practices. In conclusion, SLA is a complex process influenced by various factors such as culture, social factors, affective variables, personality factors, cognitive factors, biological factors, personal factors, and input factors. Different models and theories provide different perspectives on how language is learned and acquired. Understanding these factors and models can help educators and learners create effective language learning environments.

reflection of the way it is used. It is based on two distinctions:

the product of L2 use → deals with unplanned and planned discourse,

1. unplanned discourse is related to the lack of preparation or forethought, and also to spontaneous communication, while planned discourse requires conscious thought and gives priority to expression rather than thought

the process of L2 use → is to be understood in terms of rules and procedures,

1. that is, linguistic knowledge and the ability to make use of this knowledge.

Widdowson (1984) refers to a knowledge of rules as a competence and to a knowledge of the procedures involved in using rules to construct discourse as capacity

The universal hypothesis: Language Universals and Markedness Theory

According to Ellis, this universal hypothesis states that second language acquisition is determined by certain linguistic universals. It states that language acquisition is ruled by the way in which natural languages are organized, that is, certain

universallinguistic properties influence the order in which the rules of a specific language areacquired. According to the universal hypothesis, then, it is linguistic rather thangeneral cognitive factors that determine acquisition. There are two approaches oflearner processing input:

1. using general cognitive strategies which are part of their procedural knowledgeand which are used in other forms of learning, these strategies are often referredto as learner strategies
2. using a special linguistic faculty that enables them to operate on the input datain order to discover the L2 rules in maximally efficient ways (this linguisticfaculty is referred to as Universal Grammar)

The Markedness Theory explains the role of typological markedness in the explanationof facts about L2 phonology and takes into account both native language transfer andlanguage universals.

InterlanguageWhenever one acquires second or another language, one develops a so-calledinterlanguage, which is a system of rules and

applications that can either bear:

• properties and rules of L1
• properties and rules of both L1 and L2
• can also not possess features of neither from both the learner's Interlanguage is seen as a separate linguistic system, different native language and the target language, but linked to both of them by interlingual identifications in the perception of the learner. Interlanguage can be understood as a continuum between the first language and the second language along which all learners traverse.

Bimodality (Danesi)

Professor Marcel Danesi developed the notion of bimodality to link language learning and language teaching with research on brain functions. He stressed the importance for language teachers to understand the role of the two modes of learning:

1. intuitive-experiential
2. reflective-analytical

These two learning modes correspond to right-hemispheric and left-hemispheric functions, respectively. He used the term bimodality to encapsulate this neuro-logical duality and discussed

How it might be used pedagogically, seeing as in the learning process both hemispheres are used: the left one enables us to analyse individual concepts, while the right one allows us to synthesize information into discourse.

Krashen's Hypotheses

Krashen also proposed his theory of SLA, which consists of five hypotheses and each one of them relates to a different aspect of the language learning process, they are as follows:

The Learning/Acquisition Hypothesis

This hypothesis claims that we may develop language competence in two modalities: acquisition → is described as a subconscious process, which means that while we're acquiring, we don't always know that we're doing it, it goes on below our level of awareness; language acquisition does not happen by learning grammar rules or by memorizing vocabulary lists.