Lingua e Traduzione Inglese 2

REFERENCE

1. Anaphoric= defence points the reader/listener “backwards “

2. Cataphoric = that a is to say that a reference points the reader/listener “forward”( to a element

still not be mentioned)

The use of personal pronoun allow us to establish the cohesion between the different elements of the

sentences. Reference could also be the demonstrative , the function of these could be adjectives/

pronoun. ( this that these those here + “subsequent mention” definite article). Reference is rapresented

by the use of adjective like sush, similar, different other, they can be superlative or comparative.

SUBSTITUTION

Can be nominal, we not need to repeat the noun, we replace a noun with a pronoun, the style of the text

can Becky is.

Verbal= the verb can be replaced with the auxiliary form.

Clausal= we can substitute a sentence using another clause or others elements

ELLIPSIS

Is another forme of texture device. Consiste in omitting a element mentioned before but preserving the

sense. Ellipsis can be:

Nominal= anounjs omitted

Verbal = a verb is omitted, there isn't the compote form of the verb

Clausal= a Clause is omitted, because the comprehension is granted, so there is no need to repeat it.

CONJUNCTION

Connects to different elements in the text. It can be:

Adversative= relations of contrast ( but however in fact), the sentences is introduced in contrast of what it

is said I the first time.

Additive= relations of Addition, Similarity, Emphasis ( also, too, as well, for example, in addition ).

Temporal = chronological relation between actions made in different time. ( first, then, next, finally, in the

meantime…)

CAUSAL =relations of cause and result of the action. ( because, as, since, so, therefore.)

The use of conjunctions doesn6 create the relationship between two sentences, but it makes it explicit.

Conjunctions are not always necessary.

Halliday also describe 3 form of relations between sentences:

• PARATAXIS colloquial language

• HYPOTAXIS topical of academic written language

• EMBEDDING a clause inserted in the main-one.

LEXICAL COHESION

REITERATION

Is the reception of same word , and this is a ,medical form of COHESION in a text. We can also use

synonyms, and we can express the samemeaningjust changing the for of them on we can also use

superordinates called um fella terms , less precise description .

We can use General words with no definite meaning like “stuff “. It guarantees COHESION between 1 and 2

sentences.

COLLOCATION

Words that tend to belong semantically, but don't have the same meaning. But it has many

limitsforexample with this devices is difficult to establish limited set of regular co-occurring words, and

lexical relations are often Taxt and Cotext-bound >not permanent.

RHETORICAL COHESION

Includes a quastion-answer structure, the cohesion is established in this way.

Parallelism= the repetition of the same structure over and over again aim to reinforce the power of

structure in the text.

COHESION IS DIFFERENT FROM DEIXIS.

Deixis= reference to situational context of the communicative event in which words are uttered. Can be

personal which is expresses by personal pronoun. Place deixis ( this here, therr), time deixis ( tomorrow ,

tlday, noe, later) , social deixis ( addres terms , such as president, darling, your honor) discourse deixis ( this

thata referred to a text in discourse).

DISCOURSE PARTICIPANTS

➢ Producer

➢ Interpreter > Addresses= the person who I am talking to.

Target= the person who's expected to be affected by the message.

Overheated = person who is near to the producer.

DISCOURSE grammar > study of regular regulary patterns in Discourse. There are two approaches for this

study. When people have conversation in each case there are particular patterns.

1. Exchange structure based to deductive method

2. Conversation Analysis based on Inductive method, when people have conversation .

EXCHANGE STRUCTURE ( Sinclair and Coulthard)

The lesson is considered like a event that broke down in 5 interaction:

• TRANSACTION

• EXANGE

• MOVE

• ACT = we need speech act , referred back to Austin categories

Each teaching Exchange= three move structure

• Opening move = INITIATION

• Answering move = RESPONSE IRF STRUCTURE.

• Follow -up move= FOLLOW- UP ( how teacher replies to the answer)

CONVERSATION ANALYSIS

Intention to regnize a definition of conversation . It is definite like a discourse mutually constructed and

negotiated in time between speakers. Another characteristic of the conversation is that is informal,

unplanned. The cooperation, TURN TAKING, depends on every different culture, because each culture has

its conversation rules.

• Transition Relence Place

• Interruption = when we start speaking while the other person has not finished to talk, in palticu

culture is not accepted ( chinese)

• Overlap= is more accepted than interruption, when we start speaking before a person is about to

finish.

So the rules of TURN-TAKING change from culture to culture.

We have a Cook> Talk conversation when: not primarily necessitated by a practical task, unequal power of

participants is suspended , small number of partecipants, involve short turns ( speeches of 5 minutes), talk

is for the partecipants and not for an audiance .

Despite the conversation that have practical aims, there are regularly recurring patterns in conversation:

ADJACENCY PAIRS= 2 utterance are regularly associated in a relationship pf”first pair part” and “second

way part”…

• Greeting> greeting

• Complaint> apology

• Introduction> greeting

Preference Structure in Adjency Pairs

First= request/ second part=acceptance/ disprefere 2 part= refusal

Assessment agreement disagreement

Blame denial

RECURRING SEQUENCES IN CONVERSATION:

a. Pre- SEQUENCES = includes pre-invitation, the interlocutors is allerted on His intention.

Pre-request

Pre – Announcements =” You'll never guess”

b. Opening SEQUENCES usually includijng: greetings, phone conversation.

c. Insertion Sequences= embedded in other pairs.

d. Closing sequence= closing down of a topic ( making arrangements), pre-closing turns “so” , “ok”

they have a pragmatic function), summarizing expression referring to the conversation, FINAL

EXCHANGE with closing terms (“ Bye”).

But these conversation patterns have a limit like:

• Lack of sistemacity

• Corpus-based linguistic not easily applicable

• Does not consider: background context, purpose, social identity of participants.

People follow norms of behavior that garantees the regulation of communication. This is called

cooperative principle. We have 4 maxims:

1. Relation= speakers are expected to said something relevant to what has been said previously.

When we flout the maxim is not sure that the interlocutors could understand.

2. Quality= speaker are expected to be sincere. Also this maxim could be flouted , but the intention is

to be understand correctly by saying something you don't think in order to not hurt the feelings of

that person, by exegerating, by using a metaphor, by using irony, by using mock-impoliteness.

3. Quantity = speakers are expected to provide the amount of information required, sometimes

people use intention to emphasize our choice. We could flouting quantity by giving to much or not

enough information

4. Manner = speakers are expected to be clear and precises in order to avoid misunderstanding. This

maxim can be flouted but the conversation in this case don't fail by being deliberately obscure to

prevent a third party from understanding.

Maxims can also be violated , the hearer wrongly assumes that a the speakers is cooperating.

1. Relation= by saying something irrilevant, the reason is to avoid the question.

2. Quality= consist to be insincere the hearer is not aware that the speaker is lying .

3. Quantity= by providing insufficient information, the speaker let the hearer to misinterprete the

message

4. Manner= by say something ambiguous, communication fails because one of the interlocutor is not

cooperating.

COHERENCE IN SPOKEN DISCOURSE

Widdowson said that COHESION is neither necessary not sufficient for the creation of coherent discourse.

Coherence is recognized by defining the context, by identifying the function that each utterance fulfils

within that context and that coherence depends on the ability of language users to recognize the functional

role played by utterances within discourse.

Each utterance correspond to a function: E.S. “ that's the telephone “ > request.

In order to communicate we have to understand the function of each utterance that is involved in the

communication, but the function can be misinterpretate.

Language functions are the actions that we are intent to perform with speeches. Austin elaborated the

speech act theory (1962) , the speech is not just a semantic function, produce results, reaction.

All utterances are performative.

Speech acts= things people do through language.

Each speech act involve three levels:

1. Locutionary acts = the act of saying something, the act itself

2. Illocutiory acts= the act performed in saying something in a given context, the act of making a

request

3. Perlocutionary acts= consist in non luinguistic effect that the illocutionary acy has on the hearer,

different possible reaction.

There are some verbs that have performative function. Implicit performative may be interpreted

differently.

John Searle revised Austin theory, elaborated the catogory of linguistic functions, creates 5 macroclasses of

speech act:

1. DECLARATIVES= very utterances change the reality of things, for examples words like verbs that

change the situation of people , destiny of reality ( baptize, sentence, bet, declare, resign, warn…).

2. REPRESENTATIVES= represented by words that the speaker believes to be true, contains word that

have the function of what is not expressed ( opinatives verbs= believe,expect, assume). Also model

verbs used for express what is could be probable, in this way we put some distance of what I am

talking about and the situation , condition. Model adjectives+ adverbs. Tag question , is not a real

question , we using this to encourage the hearer to agree with us, the Intonation is different by a

regular question. They might contain phrases/clauses with a model function ( in my opinion, as far

as I know) .

3. COMMISSIVES = committ the speaker for a future actions and involve intentions. They cannot

include statements .

4. DIRECTIVES= words are used to make the hearer do something. Ask to perform a action for

example. The action is made by hearer. They could be a negative ( “not do”). They con be explicit

with typical herds like : to command, to request, invite, forbid.

5. EXPRESSIVE= statements expressing emotions,