Riassunto esame Lingua e cultura inglese I, prof. Fusco

Cap. 4 - Politics and Government

Politics

The first limitations on monarchs started a long time ago, at the time of the feudal system. The government in London is accused of being too secretive, too centralized, too remote, too media-reactive, too controlling, and insufficiently responsive to the needs of the diverse peoples of the United Kingdom.

1997 Constitutional and Political Changes

The previous Labour Government embarked on a process of "modernization," involving such matters as:

• Devolution,
• Reform of the House of Lords, and
• Introduction of human rights and freedom of information legislation.

But these developments have been criticized for creating more problems than they have solved.

England's Political History

(England is now known as England + Scotland + Wales + Northern Ireland)

Decline of the Monarchy and the Rise of Parliament

Early monarchs or political leaders in the four nations had considerable power, but generally accepted advice and feudal limitations on their authority.

King John and Magna Carta 1215

Later English kings ignored these restraints, and powerful (French-Normans) barons opposed John's dictatorial rule by forcing him to sign Magna Carta in 1215. It:

• Restricted the monarch's powers,
• Forced them to take advice,
• Increased the influence of the aristocracy,
• Stipulated that citizens should not be imprisoned without trial.

Simon de Montfort

In 1258, an English Council was founded under these aristocratic and part-time influences, followed by the Model Parliament of Edward I in 1275, which was the first representative English Parliament. Its two houses consisted of:

• The Lords/Bishops,
• The Commons (male commoners).

The Growth of Political Parties and Constitutional Structures

During the Tudor dynasty (1485-1603), there was a return to royal dominance due to many conflicts.

The Stuarts and King Charles I

Tudor monarchs (of Welsh ancestry) united England and Wales administratively, politically, and legally in the 16th century. Following the Tudors, James VI of Scotland became James I of England in 1603, forming a Stuart dynasty and considered himself to be king of Great Britain.

The Petition of Rights in 1628: Stuart Charles I

The English power showed more resistance to royal rule and forced the Stuart Charles I to sign the Petition of Rights in 1628, which prevented him from raising taxes without Parliament's consent.

The Civil War (1642)

Charles's reaction to parliamentary ideals and belief in his right to rule without opposition provoked anger against the Crown, and a Civil War broke out in 1642. The mainly Protestant Parliamentarians under Oliver Cromwell won the military struggle against the Royalists. King Charles was beheaded in 1649, leading to the abolition of the monarchy. Britain was ruled as a Protectorate by Cromwell and his son Richard (1653-60), and Parliament comprised only the House of Commons.

Cromwell's Protectorate became unpopular, and most people wanted the restoration of the monarchy. The two Houses of Parliament were re-established, and in 1660 they restored the Stuart Charles II to the throne. During the 17th century, there was the rise of political parties.

Whigs and Tories

In 1275, under King Edward I, there was a first example of English Parliament divided into the Lords/Bishops and the Commons. Two groups became dominant: The Whigs and Tories.

The Whigs

The Whigs were mainly Cromwellian Protestant gentry who did not accept the Catholic James II as a successor to Charles II and wanted religious freedom for all Protestants.

The Tories

The Tories generally supported royalist beliefs—helped Charles II to secure James's right to succeed him. But James's attempt to rule without Parliament and his ignoring of its laws caused a further reduction in royal influence. His manipulation forced the Tories to join Whigs in inviting the Dutch Protestant William of Orange to intervene.

William of Orange and the Glorious Revolution 1688

William arrived in England in 1688. James fled to France, and William succeeded to the throne as Britain's first constitutional monarch. Since no force was involved, this event is called the Bloodless or Glorious Revolution. It affected the constitution and politics by creating a division of powers between an executive branch, a parliamentary legislative branch, and the judiciary.

King James II: Declaration of Rights 1689

Royal powers were further restricted under the Declaration of Rights (1689), which strengthened Parliament. Future monarchs could not reign or act without Parliament's consent, and the Act of Settlement (1701) specified that monarchs must be Protestant.

Hanoverian Dynasty

This era saw the election of Britain’s first Prime Minister, Robert Walpole. Parliamentary influence grew in the early 18th century because the Hanoverian George I lacked interest in British politics. He distrusted the Tories with their Catholic sympathies and appointed Whigs like Robert Walpole to his Privy Council. Walpole became chief minister in 1721, increasing the parliamentary role and being called Britain's first prime minister.

Act of Union in 1801

In 1801, Ireland was united with Great Britain by the Act of Union to form the UK. The Irish Parliament was abolished, and Irish members sat in both Houses of the London Parliament.

The Expansion of Voting Rights

First Reform Act 1832

The Tories were against electoral reform (as were the Whigs initially). But the country was rapidly increasing its population and developing industrially and economically. Pressures for political reform became irresistible. The Whigs:

• Reformed the Parliamentary system,
• Extended voting rights to a small number of the growing middle class in the First Reform Act of 1832.

In 1918, the expansion of voting rights to all men occurred. In 1928, women also obtained the right to vote. All males and females aged 21 possessed the vote (with some exceptions), and the age limit was further reduced to 18 in 1969.

The Traditional Role of Women

Women of all classes had been confined to the role of mother in the home, although some found employment in home industries, factories, or as domestic servants, teachers, and governesses. Women's social position became marginally better in the 19th century.

Pankhursts in 1903

The most famous suffrage movement was that of Pankhursts in 1903. Their Women's Social and Political Union campaigned for votes for women and an increased female role in society. However, there was a substantial change in women's status in the mid-20th century because of recognition of the essential work they performed during two World Wars.

The Growth of Government Structures

In the 19th century, the political parties were more organized.

Tories Conservative

The Tories became known as the Conservatives in the early 1830s.

Whigs

The Whigs were becoming a progressive force and wanted social reform and economic freedom without government restrictions. The Whigs developed into the Liberal Party (Labour Party). In the 1980s, the Labour Party and Social Democrats merged to become the Liberal Democrats.

How Britain is Run Nowadays

Britain follows a 'multi-level governance' model. The UK is a constitutional monarchy. Its monarch - either king or queen - is (formally) the head of the state, but they have very little power. Queen Elizabeth II reigns but does not rule. Parliament and the existing government have the power. Practical politics operate mainly at national, devolved, and local government levels. Local government throughout Britain organizes society at smaller community levels.

The Constitution

The UK does not have a written or printed set of rules for governing the country. Significant changes have occurred over the years, such as entry in the EU in 1973 and devolution in 1998-99. The Constitution has been formed in three ways:

• By all the laws and decrees that have been made for centuries;
• By the way these laws have been interpreted in the Law Courts in the past and now re-interpreted from time to time (such as Magna Carta);
• By the way things have been done for centuries, although some of these practices have never been formally written down (Magna Carta and Acts of Parliament);
• EU law.

The constitutional elements are flexible enough to respond quickly to new conditions.

Democracy

Britain is a democracy where men and women over 18 have a vote. Voting is not compulsory. They have the right to elect a representative to Parliament. The representative is the MP (Member of Parliament) or the Prime Minister. At the opening of Parliament, the Queen reads a speech written by the prime minister from the throne in the House of Lords.

In Britain, there is no clear separation of powers. Parliamentary elections must be held if the government loses its majority support in the House of Commons, if the Prime Minister decides to hold an election, or if the Parliament is coming to the end of a five-year period.

The Westminster Parliament

The Westminster Parliament consists of:

• House of Commons (elected),
• House of Lords (non-elected),
• Formally the monarch.

The Westminster Parliament in London is the legislature and possesses the supreme power to make laws in UK matters. EU law is directly applicable in Britain and coexists with Acts of Parliament as part of the British Constitution. The EU's Council of Ministers consists of the heads of government and ministers from the member states and is the EU's supreme law-making or law-initiating body. The Scottish Parliament can legislate on devolved matters in which Westminster has no say. Conflicts between the two parliaments will be resolved by the Supreme Court.

The House of Commons (The Executive UK Government)

There are 650 MPs elected to the House of Commons, but only 370 seats in the debating chamber for them to sit on. It governs by passing its policies through Parliament by Act of Parliament. The members of the House of Commons are chosen from all parts of the UK, elected by voters (from the age of 18). The highest court is the Supreme Court (2009), which has jurisdiction to determine devolution disputes concerning Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

The House of Lords

All peers (Lords) and peeresses who have inherited their titles have the right to take their seat in the House of Lords. But not everyone does so. Distinguished men and women who have been made peers for their lifetime have titles that cannot be inherited. Certain clergy of the Church of England and some judges, called the Law Lords, also have seats.

Function of House of Lords

The House of Lords does not have the same power as the House of Commons. Many people want to abolish it because the members have not been elected by the people. The House of Lords can:

• Pass bills sent to it from the House of Commons,
• Amend bills and send them back to the Commons for approval,
• Delay bills for a limited time,
• Start its own bills, but it must send them to the House of Commons for approval,
• The House of Lords is also the highest Court of Law in Britain,
• Bills must pass both Houses of Parliament and then receive the Royal Assent (be signed by the Queen) before they become Acts of Parliament.

The Monarchy

The correct constitutional title of British Parliament is the "Queen-in-Parliament." This means that state and government business is carried out in the name of the monarch by the politicians and officials of the system. The monarch acts only on the advice of government ministers (which cannot be ignored), and Britain is governed by Her Majesty's Government in the name of the Queen. The monarchy's continuity has been interrupted only by Cromwellian rule (1653-60), although there have been different dynasties such as Tudors, Stuarts, and Hanoverians. Royal executive power has disappeared, yet the monarch:

• Has formal constitutional roles,
• Is head of state,
• Head of executive, judiciary, legislature,
• Supreme governor of the Church of England,
• Commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

The Monarch is Expected to Be:

• Politically neutral,
• To reign but not to rule,
• Cannot make laws,
• Impose taxes,
• Spend public money,
• Act unilaterally.

The monarch performs important duties such as:

• The opening and dissolving of the UK Parliament,
• Giving the royal assent (or signature) to bills (which have been passed by both Houses of Parliament),
• Appointing government ministers and public officials,
• Granting honors,
• Leading proceedings of the Privy Council,
• Fulfilling international duties as head of state.

The Privy Council

The Privy Council deals with the group of advisers of the monarch. They work mostly through small groups composed of more than 300 members, including legislators, judges, and distinguished scholars. It was created in the Middle Ages, but since the 17th century, it has lost most of its judicial and political functions and is now replaced by the Cabinet.

The Party System

The British democratic system depends on political parties: Conservative, Labour, and the Government. When one party wins more seats than the other in an election, it forms the government. The other party is called the Opposition. In 1981, there was a split in the Labour Party, and the Social Democratic Party was formed. The UK is divided into 650 areas called constituencies. Each constituency returns one member of Parliament. Before an election, a candidate is chosen. If the local support for a party is too low, it may decide not to have a candidate. But the two major parties always fight the election in every constituency. Elections in Britain are decided on a simple majority; the candidate with the most votes is elected.

The Civil Service

The Civil Service in Britain is non-political. It has a tradition of serving and giving advice to whatever government is in power. Civil Servants are "servants of the Crown" of the Queen. Since World War II, there has been a big increase in the number of civil servants because governments now provide many more services for the citizen, such as the National Health Service.

Local Government

Central government affects the citizen in many ways. It provides hospital treatment and a pension in old age. But it also provides the organization of schools, dustbin collection, police, and the fire service. The people elect councillors for both county and district councils. The councils elect their chairman to preside over meetings. Borough councils call the chairman "Mayor." Small towns and villages elect Parish Councils or Community Councils. They have very little power but give local people a chance to express their opinions about local affairs in public.

Devolution

A transfer (decentralization) of political parties from Westminster to gain independence first started in Ireland. Political and cultural nationalism also emerged in Wales and Scotland. Regional development agencies and the authority of the Mayor play roles in this decentralization.

Cap. 5 – International Relations

Britain's position in the world today is that of a medium-sized country. It ranks economically in sixth place behind the USA, Japan, Germany, France, and China. Britain's foreign policy and self-image do not reflect the reality of its world position.

Britain as a Large Exporter

Britain is a large exporter of goods and services, has substantial overseas or outward investments, and imports much of its food and basic manufacturing requirements. It is dependent upon maintaining global commercial links, although it is increasingly committed to Europe, whose 27 EU members are significant partners.

1. Foreign Affairs

The main topics concerning international British policy are:

• British relations with the USA,
• The Commonwealth,
• The European Union,
• The Irish question.

20th Century Decline of the British Colonial Empire

The beginning of the 20th century testifies to the decline of the British colonial empire. Canada and Australia gained independence. Other countries in Africa and Asia wanted to be decolonized at the end of World War II. The rise of the Cold War, moreover, drastically reduced the worldwide importance of the UK. Great Britain felt the urgency to reinvent a new identity.

Britain's Foreign Policy

Britain's foreign policy is based on the principle that overseas objectives in the contemporary world can be best attained by persuasion, cooperation, and actively working with other nations on a regional or global basis.

British Relations with the USA

The USA has often been Britain's closest ally. A "special relationship" supposedly exists between the two based on a common language, cultural traditions, history, and military partnership. Britain's major defense alliance is with NATO, which currently comprises 26 members. The justification for NATO's creation was that it provided its members with greater security than any could achieve individually. The British government defense spending has reduced the number of armed forces personnel, ships, aircraft, and equipment, but has increased other priority areas such as capabilities.