Global History

Expanding culture of consumption (Saloons and Cafés Littéraires)

Public opinion: the public opinion of an individual didn't matter before the 18th century but it became important after when opinion did really matter when the public became a cultural and political arbiter.

Private individuals rendering judgement on what they read, observed or otherwise experienced.

The 'public' as a cultural and political arbiter.

Birth of opinion journals and gazettes.

The Boston Gazette: it began publication on December 21, 1719. It appeared weekly. It was the successor of The Boston News-Letter (1704). It published articles against royal authority. It wasn't a collection of news but it had a political comment.

Doing Politics: for instance, it was the Boston Gazette that hired Paul Revere to create his famous engraving of the Boston Massacre.

The Spectator: John Addison and Richard Steele. Not only reported news but also gave opinions and described the peculiarities of London life in a.

caustic way. It was what we now call an opinion journal that criticized the government.

17th-18th century: there were appeared for the first time newspapers that collected news without ajudgement.

Il Caffè (1764-1766): Pietro Verri, Alessandro Verri and Cesare Beccaria. It took on political and civic battles and created the opinion journal. For instance, they championed in favor of the smallpox inoculation. It was an 'engaged' gazette.

17th century: first gazettes and journals but controlled by the government, not concerning internal affairs but international ones.

18th century: domestic and international affairs.

The French Revolution

In 1788 in France 1.500 different political pamphlets appeared, in 1789, 2.600. During the Revolution, every political leader (Marat, Desmoulins, Danton, Hébert) had his own newspaper through which he did not spread news but their political ideas, in order to gain people's consensus.

Marat's L'Ami du Peuple: was the most

important one, he declared that he started his newspaper in order to spread his political and cultural ideas and not to inform people on national or international affairs.

At the outbreak of the Revolution, wearied by the persecutions that I had experienced for so long a time, I eagerly embraced the occasion that presented itself of defeating my oppressors. I came to the Revolution with my ideas already formed, and I was so familiar with the principles of high politics that they had become commonplaces for me. I adopted the course of publishing my ideas by means of the press. I founded the Ami du Peuple. I began it with a severe but honest tone, that of a man who wishes to tell the truth.

Empathy

Celebrity is largely based on emotions

It stirs irrational passions

Celebrities are considered great and unique men and women

At the same time, they are seen as regular human beings with feeling and flaws, public perceives celebrity as similar to them and very close to them mainly because of the

empathy.Europe’s most famous man : VoltaireDuring his lifetime, Voltaire was so famous that :- his name was used in pirated edition- images of his private life were published specially on gazettes- engravings of his portrait were sold in Paris and London- his return to Paris in 1778, after many years of exile, was witnessed by a huge crowd Inthat occasion, Voltaire was even crowned in a public ceremonyCelebrities and fansThe fan’s admiration starts as intellectual or artistic esteem. To this, it is usually added empathy forthe difficulties and problems of the celebrities. Then it becomes a sincere desire of intimacy or evenan excessive curiosity for the celebrities’ private livesStatuesIn Naples, small statues of celebrities were very popular: king, queens, poets such as PietroMetastasio and the Voltaire, Washington and Rousseau were sold to locals and travellers In France,in Sevrès, figurines of porcelain depicting Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Franklin andWashingtonwere produced and sold to locals and travellers.In England, Josiah Wedgwood (who had a central role in industrializing porcelain production) soldalso small porcelain figurines of Rousseau, Voltaire, Franklin and actress Sarah Siddons.PortraitsPortraits of celebrities were used for advertisement (for instance, those of British actor DavidGarrick was used for advertise a certain brand of tobacco). They were printed on cheap paper andsold everywhere.French merchants Jacques Esnault and Michel Rapilly created a true business selling portraits ofking and queens (the French royal family but also, Joseph II, Catherine of Russia) and of culturaland political celebrities (Rousseau, Voltaire, Necker, Washington, Cook), of actors and ofadventurers (Cagliostro). Portraits were painted also on consumption objects such as small boxes,cups, jewels.The negative sideJean-Jacques Rousseau was one of the very first the describe the negative sides of celebrities:solitude and limitations of hisfreedomSuch degree of self-consciousness was unprecedented. Before the 18th century no one had described celebrity is such modern way.Infamous celebrityMarie Antoinette, queen of France. Caricatures e satires depicts the queen as unfaithful. Les Amours de Charlot e Toinette (London 1779). For the first time, people pry into a queen's private life: the prestige of the royal family is destroyed. This was one of the factors which led to the French Revolution and the end of monarchy.18th century CelebrityBy the end of the 18th century the mechanism of celebrity – a modern form of fame - was well established with a series of implications and became a sort of business because celebritiest started to enjoy fame in public:- Everyone could become a celebrity, not only kings and nobles, but also writers and actors- Celebrity was also a business and generated a vast market of consumption objects (books, portraits, figurines)- Celebrities enjoyed public fame but they also had to endureloneliness and deprivation of privacy- Celebrity could also be negative and could become a political weapon.

Celebrity and Politics
Marie Antoinette at the end of the century had been one of the first victims of modern negative celebrity and publicity. Instead, the revolutionary leaders exploited personal positive celebrity to gain political power. While to attain glory one had to be dead, celebrity was something one could reach during his / her lifetime, so it could be a powerful tool in political struggle.

Political Popularity
When celebrity meets politics, it becomes popularity. In democracy, leaders need popularity to gain the people's trust and support. This mechanism is firstly experimented on a large scale during the French Revolution. This is why all the revolutionary leaders were very careful in construing their public image and in controlling information (through their own newspapers).

Mirabeau
Honoré Gabriel Riqueti count of Mirabeau was a revolutionary leader. His political

popularity was immense. He had become a celebrity before the Revolution as a writer and as an anti-conformist (his father even had him put in prison). When he died, in 1791, his celebrity turned into glory and he was buried in the Panthéon.

Assassin or Heroine? His immense political popularity was the main reason why Jean-Paul Marat was killed in 1794. His assassin, Charlotte Corday enjoyed a double fame. The public developed a morbid curiosity for her life and then for her trial and execution. The anti-revolutionaries depicted her as a heroine: poems were written in all Europe to remember her sacrifice and courage.

Father of the country: The case of George Washington is highly interesting because he was able to exploit the mechanism of celebrity invented in Europe in a new way. In fact, during his lifetime, he was able to present himself as a great man and a hero. He was a celebrity: his portraits and figurines were sold all over Europe and America. However, his private life always remained.

Private and he was famous because of his virtues and because of his actions during the War of Independence. The Atlantic and American model of celebrity forged by Washington had a vast influence in Europe.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte was the one able to combine together celebrity, popularity, and glory. He followed in the steps of Washington, but he was also able to reach a new level because he started to inspire people's feelings. He was able to govern and control in the best way the mechanism of communication and information:

• Like the 18th-century celebrities, Napoleon inspired feelings and empathy.
• Like Washington, he created a public self-image as a great man and hero.

Global Celebrity

"Napoleon is a modern hero, a hero who arouses a desire for intimacy" (Antoine Lilti). Napoleon was so successful that his fame crossed every temporal and spatial border:

• Napoleon's fame continued even after his death.
• Napoleon's fame was truly global: as

witnessed in the Memorial of Saint Helena, his name was well known also in China, Persia, Japan and Latin America.

1. leader of argentinian indipendence
2. Napoleon: known in latin american, leaders of indipendence rejected napoleon’s political ideals, they aknowledge his ability in presenting like a hero using the same communication sample of Napoleon. Napoleon represented in a japanese book, napoleon rapresented like a japenese, he became a political and positive model of leadership in order to follow and quote him. And creation of fakenews.

Public Health and Networks: Disease transmission

Circulation of scientific knowledge

World Health Organization

When diplomats met to form the United Nations in 1945, one of the things they discussed was setting up a global health organization.

WHO’s Constitution came into force on 7 April 1948. 194 Member States, across six regions, more than 150 offices

WHO strive to combat diseases: communicable diseases like influenza and HIV, and noncommunicable

Diseases like cancer and heart disease.

Public Health

It is the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting human health through organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals.

The first structured forms of disease prevention and care were created during the Early Modern Age. The Columbian Exchange Commerce and Epidemics. In 1485, the Republic of Venice established a permanent Venetian Magistrate for Health comprising supervisors of health with special attention to the prevention of the spread of epidemics in the territory from abroad.

Port cities were the entry points of goods and people, therefore also of infective diseases so they were the most affected by epidemics. It is no surprise that the first Public Health services were developed in port cities such as Venice, Marseilles, L