English Language

Info page

Martedì 24 ottobre 2017 08.00

Tuesday 8.00-9.30 AM until 19/12. From 9/01 Tuesday 8.30-10.45 AM until 30/01.

Moodle: Lingua Inglese II 2017 1st Language

PW: LT2L1M

mhammersley@units.it

Tue 11.15-12.00 room 306

Source material

• Corporate/business English
• Textbooks and resources
• Yule G., The Study of Language, Cambridge, CUP
• Carter, Goddard, How to Analyse Texts: a toolkit for students of English, Oxford, Routledge

Assignments

• A written discussion about elements of grammar or lexis based on an agreed text
• A group analysis of an agreed text presented orally in class (as a group activity)
• A written text analysis of an agreed text (individually, 2-3 pages)

Module examination

Preappello in February!!!

• Written parts: a text analysis assignment based on a text similar to those studied in class
• Oral part: examination of oral production in English based on the topics addressed in the module

What is grammar?

Martedì 24 ottobre 2017 08.00

There are different possibilities to define grammar, so we can start to say other things about grammar. First of all, we can make a distinction between primary grammar and secondary grammar:

1. Primary grammar is what a first language speaker has, because it is intuitive, an unconscious knowledge, understanding and application of the rules (for example, Italian native speakers know the gender of things, but don't know why, and an English native speaker knows that the past tense of go is went and not goed*).
2. Secondary grammar is conscious, learned expertise approximating to primary grammar. It consists of the things that have been memorized and learned. If a person is bilingual, chances are that it might have primary grammar in both languages and in some cases, the secondary grammar can come very close to the first grammar.

There are also many other types of grammar:

• Scientific/academic grammar is precise, a detailed specification for research and analysis. Can be also used in the field of scientific analysis of the language (for example a small area of people working with language).
• Pedagogic grammar is grammar for learners of language, but also for teachers. It has the purpose of teaching somebody else the language.
• Regional variations are also part of grammar. "I have finished already" is British English and we have been taught that only this is right, but in American English also "I finished already" is right. "The majority are right" (BE) it refers to something which is grammatically singular, but with a plural concept, so English uses the plural verb (concordance), but in American English "The majority is right" is also correct.
• Written grammar is derived from and applied to the written representation of language.
• Spoken grammar is derived from and applied to the spoken representation of language.
• Historical grammar is useful to study old-fashioned collocations and forms that don't exist anymore. "I dare say he hath erred" (th became s) = example of early modern English.
• Contemporary English is common English today, and common words. "I was like that is well wrong". "Like" is commonly used, some years ago "you know" was common.

There can be also different types of grammar that relate to language use:

• Non-standard grammar "We was robbed it weren't no penalty" "You ain't right, he done it on purpose".
• Text language "Wot U duin 2nite?"

These last two examples are not to be considered English, but everyone understands them. So we can say that grammar is the description of the structure and/or the constituent parts of a system (language) used to formulate a communication that has meaning.

Elements of grammar and syntax

Structural and constituent analysis

Giovedì 26 ottobre 2017 08.00

Structural analysis consists in identifying a noun: "The ___ is on the table" everyone understands that I must put a noun, not a verb. Constituent analysis consists in distinguishing the subjects, the verb, and the complements.

Noun Phrase Verb Prepositional phrase

The pen is on the table.

So grammar can also be the description of the:

• Constituent parts (building blocks) of the linguistic system
• Order in which the building blocks are placed (word order)
• Particular modifications that the building blocks may undergo (inflections)

Descriptive and prescriptive grammar

Martedì 24 ottobre 2017 08.00

Descriptive grammar describes and illustrates how a language is actually exploited in practice by both "primary" and "secondary" grammar users (e.g., Practical English Usage, M. Swan). It recognizes that grammar changes over time and varies in different historical, geographic, social contexts. All the previous examples are examples of descriptive grammar.

Prescriptive grammar gives rules. It is a prescriptive formulation defined by rules, expressed in "right" and "wrong" forms. These rules might be inappropriate to the language system in which they are applied. "Is it right or wrong?" is a prescriptive question.

Examples:

• "What shall we talk about?" We shouldn't put prepositions at the end of the sentence, but from the descriptive point of view, everyone does it.
• "We need to fully understand the difference." The split infinitive is considered wrong but people eventually put adverbs in the middle of the form.
• "Hopefully we can come to some conclusion." Hopefully literally means "full of hope", but here is used as "I hope that".
• "We didn't discover nothing last time." These are two negatives that cannot be together in the same sentence, but many people use it.
• "If I was you, I would think again." The correct form would be "if I were you" but more and more people use was.

Definitions

Martedì 31 ottobre 2017 08.00

Language is democratic; if it changes, we just have to accept it and describe the change (descriptive grammar), rather than having rules that say what's wrong and what's right, which could be easier for second language speakers. But it's easier to talk about future time instead of future tense.

Examples

• "Can we get to change" = future time
• "We are moving towards a close-loop supply" = future time
• "What can we do next?" = rhetorical question that refers to the future time
• "We will get back to you in less than two business days" = future time
• "Surgery is usually the first kind of treatment you will receive" = future time
• "Monday first quarter physical education begins" = future time

In the English language, there are many ways to indicate the future nature of an occurrence. Some argue that English does not have a future tense, but a grammatical form which indicates futurity, and that there's no mandatory form to express futurity. However, there are generally accepted forms to indicate futurity in English and some of them (in particular those with will or shall) are frequently considered future tense.

There is a tendency (prescriptionist) to consider "will" the grammatical form to indicate futurity, but it doesn’t really fit in the way the future works in English. "Will" still partially retains its old Germanic meaning of "the desire to do something", for instance in the expression "free will". And this still has a little implication on the way "will" is used to express future time.

But since there's no mandatory grammatical form, it is better not to speak about tense. According to "A Survey of Modern English", tense in English consists of any present tenses or past tenses. According to "The Stuff of Truth", instead, the future tense has a different status from the other tenses, and it is expressed using the modal auxiliary will. But will have also the sense of "deciding to do something", in which future and desire can also be mixed up: "Sharks or no sharks, I will swim to Alcatraz".

Ways to refer to future time

Martedì 31 ottobre 2017 08.00

All of the examples (except for might) are in present tense (including will, so we cannot say that will is "more" future than the others modal forms). Many of these forms are interchangeable but we have to look past the rules --> Interchangeability of modal verbs to express future time (but each modal has differences of meaning) (e.g., "will" expresses a sense of desire).

Become is widely used for future time.

Simple present = A scheduled, often repeated event. From a prescriptive point of view (we use the present simple, so the sentence is referring to present, but that's not true).

• The company board meets tomorrow at 3.00 pm.
• Interest is paid at the end of each month. = future time indicators

Present continuous = plans and arrangements.

• We are introducing a new software in the planning department. (It might be happening right now, but it is obviously something that derives from the past and that is going to continue in the future).
• The managing director is arriving this afternoon.

Be to/Be about to = realization of a previous decision

• Twenty-five junior managers are to be promoted next week. (Something that has been decided/fixed and is now in the process of realization).
• The company is about to make a major investment. (In this particular moment, on the point of doing it. The realization is a little bit closer than in the former example (be to)).

Going to/Planning to/Intending to/Expecting to = a programmed objective that is likely to happen, there is a high probability that something will occur.

• A new headquarters is going to be built next year.
• We are planning to expand into Asia.
• We are intending to recruit more staff.
• We are expecting to make a substantial profit.

Plan to/Expect to/Want to = a projected, less certain, future objective (Not continuous form. Less probability of it happening (in comparison to "going to", etc.))

• They plan to start production next year.
• They expect to lose money on the deal.
• We want to return to profit.

Hope to/Mean to/Would like to = a projected, less certain future objective

• We hope to reduce costs considerably.
• We mean to fight the hostile takeover.
• We would like to set up a joint venture.

May/might = indication of level of probability of a future occurrence

• Prices may increase in the third quarter. (It clearly refers to the future, but it also implies that the probability of it happening is low. It reduces the probability).
• Unemployment might decline towards the end of the year. (The probability of it happening is even lower).

Can/could = indication of level of probability of a future occurrence. They express a higher probability than may and might.

• We can offer a 5% discount on bulk orders. (It is almost like saying “we offer”, from the POV of probability of it happening. But not 100%).
• The company could consider launching a new service. (Lower probability than "can", but higher than "may/might").

1. CAN
2. COULD
3. MAY
4. MIGHT

Must = indication of level of probability (obligation) of a future occurrence.

• Sales must expand in the coming year if we are to survive.

Shall/should = suggestions/recommendations for future action

• We should consider the possibility of reducing expenses.

Will = predictions and promises about the future (probability); willingness.

Prediction --> in "going to" the realization of the action is near the moment of expression of the sentence, with "will" it is further, more vague. The easy solution would be saying that "will" is the standard way to indicate futurity and that’s it. But it’s not true.

Ways to refer to future time

• Next year, I think your contract will be renewed. = prediction, further into the future
• I will contact you tomorrow. = a modal, linked to the idea of power and desire
• We will offer better conditions.
• Will you let me know what you think?
• If I can help, I will.

Would = willingness (conditional); request for agreement.

• If I could help, I would (conditional)
• Would you mind waiting for five minutes? (Request for agreement)

Usage examples in business English

Martedì 31 ottobre 2017 08.00

Usage examples of future expression in business English can be found in mission and vision statements of companies or business presentations.

Mission statements

• Starbucks: "To inspire and nurture the human spirit - one person, one cup, and one neighborhood at a time"
• eBay: "Provide a global trading platform where practically anyone can trade practically anything"

Vision statements

• "Five years from now…"
• "Within the next five years…"

Differences:

• Amazon's mission statement: "We strive to offer our customers the lowest possible prices, the best available selection, at the utmost convenience".
• Amazon's vision statement: "To be Earth's most customer-centric company, where customers can find and discover anything they might want to buy online".

No forms of future, just the description of the present.

Business Presentations

• "I'm going to talk about…"
• "I'll talk about…" (similar forms)
• "We will…"

It doesn't have to be with one of these words, they are all possible alternatives, interchangeable. They are 3 different possibilities to refer to future time, they are all interchangeable, none of them are wrong. There's no fixed rule that says "you must use this form".

• "So let's start by…"
• "Before going on, I would like to…" (before as an expression of the future)
• "Finally, I'd like to…"
• "I'd be happy to answer any questions"

Modal Verbs - Modality

Martedì 7 novembre 2017 08.00

The levels of possibility tend to be linked to the future (or they express something in the future). For example, would is a reference to the future not realistically possible (it is likely to happen), and will is not exclusively the indicator of the future.

Modal verbs are a closed class, which means it cannot be expanded (it is difficult to imagine a new modal verb):

• Can
• Could
• May
• Might
• Shall
• Should
• Must
• Need (to)
• Dare (to)
• Ought (to)
• Will
• Would

They present the NICE syntactic features of auxiliaries (which define the auxiliaries):

• (Direct) Negation "You cannot do that"
• (Direct) Inversion or Interrogation "May I ask a question"
• Code "Yes, you may" (Ellipsis of "ask a question") it may be used to repeat the rest of the sentence, which is still understandable even if not there
• Emphasis "No, you can't"

They are incomplete verb forms (but they exist in various times and persons in other Germanic languages, for example "must" in other languages is a full verb):

• They have no infinitive
• They do not have 3rd person conjugations
• They have limited past forms
• They have no past or present participles (with the exception of could and would)

Epistemic (propositional) modality

It expresses a level of probability that a proposition or event is true and/or will occur, but also the function of the level of probability (for example in reference to the future (I might go, I should go). There's no past tense! In this case, we use the perfect infinitive to give a sense of conjecture.

• Will - Shall - Must - Should - Ought to - Can - Could - May - Might

Only present and future meaning, never past, when used with the simple infinitive: "I might go - I should go". They have a conjectural or contra-factual sense when used with the perfect infinitive: "He may have done it - It can't have happened".

Deontic modality

Relates to ability, permission, volition, or obligation.

• Can - May - Will - Must - Shall - Should

Generally, uses a present and/or future tense. Past references are often made with alternative forms, such as:

• "To be possible/permitted/allowed/able"
• "To be willing"
• "To be supposed to"

But a true past form can only be made with "can" and "would":

• "When I was a child I could speak French" (Ability)
• "I would (used to) study all day long" (Volition)

Positive and negative examples

• I must study these verbs
• I must not repeat the same mistake
• I have to study these verbs
• I do not have to repeat the exercise
• I need to study these verbs
• I need not repeat the exercise
• I should study these verbs
• I should not repeat the exercise

All meanings are different: must not remains an obligation not to do something, and in the other ones there's no necessity to do something.

Subjective vs. Objective Obligation

Subjective (the obligation comes from me) Objective (the obligation comes from the outside)

• I must study these verbs
• I have to study these verbs
• I need not repeat the exercise
• I do not have (need) to repeat the exercise
• I cannot smoke here
• I am not allowed to smoke here

What is the difference between "Can I ask you a question?" and "May I ask you a question?"

The two modal verbs express a different level of formality, politeness, and level of perceived difficulty. The perception of difficulty is exploited in order to achieve something by putting psychological pressure on the other person to say yes by modifying the word. Can is the more straightforward situation. May perceives the question more difficult. So it is about whether I will ask the question anyways or not.

Can