English Language 1

STRONG AND WEAK FORMS

In speech, a sound may change in quality or quantity when it is produced within the rhythm of speech. We call these

modified sounds weak forms.

Stressed syllables are pronounced fully and are strong forms. Unstressed syllables are weak forms and they often contain

the vowel /ə/ or /ɪ/ > sometimes vowels they disappear entirely > syllabic consonants.

When we talk about weak forms in the phonology of English this includes a series of words which have one pronunciation

(strong) when isolated, and another (weak) when not stressed within a phrase.

A syllable is weak if it contains one of the vowels /ə/, /ɪ/, /u/ ( ) or a syllabic consonant (

ES: about, happy, thank you ES:

).

sudden, middle

A syllable is strong if it contains any of the other vowels or diphthongs.

CONTRACTIONS

Function words may combine with other function words:

ES: We + will → We’ll; Do + not → Don’t

POINTERS FOR TRANSCRIPTION

In unstressed syllables we typically find /ə ɪ ʊ i u/ or a syllabic consonant. In SSBE /r/ occurs only before a vowel.

Words in the happy lexical set ending in –y, -ie or –ee are pronounced with a short version of the /iː/, that is, [i]

ES: happy /ˈhæpi/; coffee /ˈkɒfi/

COMMON WEAK FORMS

ASSIMILATION

In speech, the sounds of a language do not occur in isolation but in sequences of variable length.

Adjacent sounds influence each other --> sounds may become more like their neighbors.

Assimilation means the process where one segment becomes more like (or identical to) another segment, or two segment

become more like each other.

ES: /ˈbrɔːdkɑːst/ → in connected speech /ˈbrɔːgkɑːst/

The phoneme /d/ became a /g/ under the influence of the third phoneme /k/

/ˈbrɔːdkɑːst/ → ideal form: produced in slower and more careful styles of speech

/ˈbrɔːgkɑːst/ → assimilated form: typical of faster styles

In assimilation, segment which is changed is called target, segment which influences the target is called source.

→

ES: happen citation form /ˈhæpən/ --> more natural speech /ˈhæpm̩ /

→ → becoming the bilabial nasal [m]

alveolar nasal /n/ becomes more like the bilabial stop /p/

→

ES: input citation form /ˈɪnpʊt/ --> more natural speech /ˈɪmpʊt/

→

HAPPEN is a progressive assimilation /n/ → [m] / p(source) _____ (target)

→

INPUT is a regressive assimilation /n/ → [m] / _____ (target) p (source)

ASSIMILATION OF PLACE (it is common in English)

Concerns changes of place of articulation, final alveolars /t, d, n, s/ in ideal forms assimilate to the place of the following

wordinitial consonant

• /t, d, n/ are replaced by bilabials when preceding /p b m/

;

ES: Ten balloons: /ten bəˈluːnz/ → /tembəˈluːnz/

• /t, d, n/ are replaced by velars when preceding /k g/

;

ES: Ten cups: /ten kʌps/ → /teŋ kʌps/

;

ES: Good girl: /gʊd gɜːl/ → /gʊg gɜːl/

;

ES: Good bye /gʊd baɪ/ → /gʊbbaɪ/

• /s/ is replaced by post-alveolars when preceding /ʃ /

ES: This shop: /ðɪs ʃɒp/ → /ðɪʃʃɒp/.

ASSIMILATION OF VOICE

A sound becomes more like its neighbor by “agreeing” in voice

• voicing: voiceless sound becomes voiced;

• devoicing: voiced sound becomes voiceless. In a small number of verb form, devoicing is so common that it is

effectively mandatory.

• /v/ > /f/ ES: have to > /ˈhæv tə/ > /ˈhæftə/

• /z/ > /s/ ES: has to > /ˈhæz tə/ > /ˈ hæstə/

• /d/ > /t/ ES: had to > / ˈhæd tə/ > / ˈhættə/

• /d/ > /t/ ES: need to > /ˈniːd tə/ > /ˈniːttə/

• /z/ > /s/ ES: used to > /ˈjuːzd tə/ > /ˈjuːstə/

• /z/ > /s/ ES: supposed to > /səˈpəʊzd tə/ > /səˈpəʊstə/

ASSIMILATION OF MANNER

It involves a change in the manner of articulation.

Plosive /d/ becomes a nasal, and plosive /t/ becomes a fricative

ES: good night /ˌgʊdˈnaɪt/ → /ˌgʊnˈnaɪt/

ES: that side /ðæt ˈsaɪd/ → /ðæs ˈsaɪd/

Fricatives may be replaced by a nasal or lateral (especially /ð/ in unstressed words)

ES: join the army /dʒɔɪn ðɪ ɑːmi/ → /dʒɔɪn nɪ ɑːmi/

ES: fail the test /feɪl ðə test/ → /feɪl lə test/

ES: till they meet again /tɪl ðeɪ miːt əˈgen/ → /tɪl leɪ miːt əˈgen/

FUSION/COALESCENCE

In fusion, two segments assimilate to each other a third segment that combines properties of the two starting segments

ES: behind you /bəˈhaɪnd juː/ → /bəˈhaɪndʒu/

ES: caught you /ˈkɔːt juː/ /ˈkɔːtʃə/

• Alveolar stop + palatal approximant = post-alveolar affricate

• Voice quality depends on the first segment

• Place of articulation is in between

YOD COALESCENCE

/t, d, s, z/ + /j/ can turn into /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/ in casual speech

• /t/ + /j/ = /tʃ/

ES: what you want --> /ˈwɒtʃə wɒnt/

• /d/ + /j/ = / dʒ/

ES: would you /ˈwʊdʒə/

• /s/ + /j/ = /ʃ/

ES: unless you /ʌnˈleʃə/

• /z/ + /j/ = /ʒ/

ES: has your letter come? /hæʒəˈletə kʌm/

T-VOICING

In American English, the /t/ sound is realized as an alveolar flap [ɾ] across word boundaries when /t/ is between vowels

or between an /r/ sound and a vowel. SSBE GA

Get out /get aʊt/ [geɾ aʊt]

Sort of /sɔːt əv/ [sɔrɾ əv]

What are you doing? /ˈwɒtəju dəɪŋ/ [wɑɾərjə dəɪŋ]

Know it all /nəʊ ɪt ɔːl/ [noʊ ɪɾ ɔl]

ELISION

Weakly accented syllables have always undergone a process of reduction, including loss of vowels and consonants.

Elision may be established (historical) or more recent tendencies present today in rapid speech.

Elision is the deletion of a phoneme. It can occur within a word or at word boundaries.

Consonant elision mostly involves /t/ and /d/

ES: West Cliff /west klɪf/ → /wesklɪf/

ES: Thousand points /ˈθaʊz(ə)nd ˈpɔɪnts/ → /ˈθaʊz(ə)n ˈpɔɪnts/

Vowels may also be elided

ES: territory → /ˈterɪt(ə)ri/ → /ˈterɪtri/

ES: natural → /ˈnætʃ(ə)rəl/ → /ˈnætʃrəl/

In General American, words like territory, laboratory, category are pronounced differently

SSBE GA

/ˈterɪt(ə)ri/ /ˈterəˌtɔri/

/ləˈbɒrət(ə)ri/ /ˈlæbrəˌtɔri/

/ˈkætɪg(ə)ri/ /ˈkæɾəˌgɔri/

• /t, d/ may be lost when medial (in the middle position) in a cluster of three consonants

ES: tasteless → /ˈteɪstləs/ → /ˈteɪsləs/

ES: mind-boggling → /ˈmaɪndbɒglɪŋ/ → /ˈmaɪmbɒglɪŋ/

• /p/ may be elided in clusters where its position is homorganic (with the same place of articulation) with that of a

preceding sound

ES: glimpse /glɪmps/ → /glɪms/

ES: attempts /əˈtemps/ → /əˈtems/

• Word initial /h/ is sometimes elided as well

ES: would have /wʊd hæv/ → /wʊdəv/

ES: give him his doll /ˈgɪv hɪm hɪz ˈdɒl/ → /ˈgɪvɪmɪzˈdɒl/

ELISION AT WORD BOUNDARIES

• Vowels: when one syllable ends with a closing diphthong and the next begins with a vowel, the second element

of the diphthong may be elided

ES: go away /gəʊ əˈweɪ/ → /gɜːˈweɪ/

• Consonants: /t/ and /d/ are often elided when in the middle of three consonants

ES: next day /nekst deɪ/ → /neks(t)deɪ/ /neksdeɪ/

ES: pushed them /pʊʃt ðem/ → /pʊʃ(t)ðəm/ /pʊʃðəm/

ES: wept bitterly → /wep(t)bɪtəli/ /wepbɪtəli/

LINKING /r/

In GA all /r/ are pronounced, but in non-rhotic accents, linking /r/ consists in the pronunciation of /r/ at word boundaries

ES: far off: /fɑː ɒf/ → /fɑːrɒf/

INTRUSIVE /R/

Pronunciation of an /r/ where there isn’t one in the spelling. Typical of non-rhotic varieties of English but considered

incorrect ES: we saw a film /wɪ ˈsɔːr ə ˈfɪlm/

STRESS AND RHYTHM

Stress is what we call a supra-segmental feature → stress, rhythm, intonation.

Word stress --> stress in isolated words.

Sentence stress --> both polysyllabic and monosyllabic words can carry strong stress while other words may be completely

unstressed.

Content words are most likely to receive sentence stress. Function words will most likely be unstressed In English, there

are four variables that indicate stress:

• intensity: greater effort in production of stressed syllables (breath and muscles) → close to what is perceived as

loudness;

• pitch variation: stress is associated to higher pitch;

• vowel quality: any vowel (in SSBE, schwa is not stressed)

;

ES: /ˈprezənt/ and /prɪˈzent/

• vowel duration: stressed vowels have full length. Vowels are shorter in unstressed syllables

.

ES: [ˈsɑːkæzm̩ ] and [sɑˈkæstɪk]

The vowel reduction is one of the most characteristic features of the English sound system. Unstressed vowels sound

different than stressed one, in English this may entail the use of an entirely different phoneme.

Pitch refers to human perception → related to speed of vibration of the vocal folds → the higher the frequency, the higher

our impression of speech.

The pitch level of voices varies a great deal between individuals and also within the speech of one speaker. Every speaker

has a pitch span → it goes from the lowest to the highest note they can produce. Speech occurs usually in the middle

portion → outside of this portion speakers express particular attitudes or emotional states.

• upper portion of pitch range → happiness, nervousness, excitement, enthusiasm;

• lower portion of pitch range → sadness, boredom, lack of enthusiasm.

Variations in pitch contribute to our understanding of the utterance

Stress in compound elements. There are many exceptions, but there are some guidelines.

Compounds written as one word almost always stress the FIRST element. If written with a hyphen or as two words, they

can be stressed on either element.

Categories of compounds that are stressed on the second element are:

• Manufactures Rule: when a material is used in the manufacture of the object described by the compound

;

ES: Apple PIE; paper BAG; diamond BRACELET

• Location Rule: when a location is mentioned in the compound

.

ES: Trafalgar SQUARE; Fifth AVENUE

SENTENCE STRESS

Stress in connected speech is called sentence stress. Some words have strong stress, others are completely unstressed

Content words (or lexical words) are usually stressed, function words (or grammar words) are usually unstressed. Content

words carry high information load.

In isolation, English words have one – or two – stressed syllables. In connected speech, certain words are unstressed and

there are:

• a small number of stressed syllables;

• a large number of unstressed syllables;

• altern