Appunti lingua inglese

MORPHOLOGY

focuses on the anatomy of words ➞ the way words are formedinternal structure, rules, neologisms (new words creation)

What is a word? they can be defined from many viewpoints:

• ORTOGRAPHIC
• PHONOLOGICAL
• LEXICAL ITEM / LEXEME
• GRAMMATICAL WORD FORM

by leaving space one abstract ideas, found from the others in dictionaries

SEMANTIC WORDS the entries in a dictionary is/are not given

CONTENT WORDS vs FUNCTION WORDS

give infos grammatical function

ex: where ex: articles

WORD-FORMS LEXEMES

ex: grammatical abstract unit words

• TYPES AND TOKENS CONTENT WORDS
• "The students borrowed the books from the library"
• FUNCTION WORDS
• TYPES ➞ the abstract elements ➞ the, students, borrowed, books, from, library
• TOKENS ➞ types repeated more times = 8

Morphemes

The smallest meaning-bearing unit, they are like lego bricks that can be put together.

Each has both form and meaning.

Some words can be analyzed into smaller parts.

ex: studentsbox→boxesbook

Free   Bound

• a free morpheme is also a word
• it is never a word alone, they can’t stand alone

happiness → happy ness

Morphemes and words are not necessarily the same

Exception: cranberry → unique morpheme

can’t stand alone, it’s not a word, it doesn’t exist alone

agree

• disagree
• disagreement

conduct

• conduction
• conductional

cheer

• cheerful
• cheerfulness

create

• creation
• recreational

simple - complex

roots - bases

-STEMS

a form without any inflectional endings (for grammatical purposes)

WINNER: { WIN } _root

WINNERS: { WIN } _{as the root}, WINNER _{as the STEM}

TYPES OF BOUND MORPHEMES

UNhappy

DISLIKE

MISpronounce

MALmutation

manageMENT

motherHOOD

cheerFUL

settleMENT

Affixes - PREFIXES, SUFFIXES, INFIXES

• lexical/derivational affixes vs grammatical/inflectional affixes
• irregular words made up of the same number of morphemes as if they were regular
• sheep → sheep → ZERO MORPH
• mouse → mice → vowel alternation
• give → gave → vowel alt

denotative meaning → connotation

sense → referents in the real world

relation between a word and certain characteristics of the set of its potential referents (entities in the world of experience) → abstract

Lexical Semantics

What words are and relations among their senses

paradigmatic and syntagmatic sense relations

relation of choice

Lexeme → abstract unit, dictionary's entries

lexical entry → different lexeme

ex. 'port' has different meanings

LEXIS → VOCABULARY → LEXICON

• a language → subset of words → the inventory of lexemes in a language
• level → in a language → items the dictionary contains
• a technical word → used in a particular context

sense → a language internal entity

defined by relations btw words in the language

the network of all the relations with all the other lexemes or expressions

2)

CONVERSION

A shift of grammatical function over timeex nouns > verbs, verbs > nouns, nouns > adj, etc.

*RUN > originally a verb (about the year 800) but in the 15^th century noun > to go for a run

FUNCTIONAL SHIFT OR ZERO DERIVATION

3) ABBREVIATION

• INITIALISM and ACRONYMS

acronyms = pronounced as a single word instead of being spelt out by letterRAM, IFAV, BHAAP, SCUBA, AIDS, LASER, DINKS, YUPPY

initialism = abbreviations formed from the INITIAL LETTERS of other wordsCD, BBC, VIP, EU

• CLIPPING

elements of a word have been dropped (either the beginning, ending, or both ends of the original word)

• back clippingtelly < telephonesit com < situation comedy
• front clippingphone < telephonefridge < refr middle clipping (vegan < vegetarian)mixed < fridge [ refrigerator ]

Common Suffixes

Adverbs / Adjectives:

• -LY → heavily, darkly
• -FOLD → twofold, duplex
• -WISE → clockwise

Verbs:

• -ATE → nominate
• -EN → quicken, threaten
• -IFY → classify, identify
• *-ISE/IZE → criticize, generalize

* = the most productive

Nouns:

• -EE → employee
• -ESS → princess, waitress
• -HOOD → brotherhood

Adjectives:

• -ABLE → fashionable
• -AHOLIC/OHOLIC → shopaholic
• -ING → boring
• -ED → wooded
• -AL → accidental
• -ESQUE → picturesque
• -FUL → beautiful
• -IC → magic

DETERMINERS

• CLOSED CLASS items
• delineating, noun reference, quantifiers, possession, deictic
• ARTICLES: definite/undefinite/basic information, generic reference
• the fact is a graphic answer
• zero articles ex: films can be instructive
• possessive (also genitive determiners + Saxon genitive)
• my house, John's paper
• numerals (cardinal vs ordinal)
• 3 houses, the first house
• quantifiers: indefinite quantifiers
• some, a few, few

The order:

1. PRE-DET - CENTRAL DET - POST DET
• all, both - articles - numerals, next, last, few,
• double, half - demonstratives - little, many, more, most, other,
• twice - possessives - every, some

PRONOUN

• stand-alone elements, they stand for nouns or heads of NPs
• personal, possessive, reflexive etc.
• not normally accompanied by determiners with exceptions

MOOD

• indicative
• interrogative (questions)
• imperative (commands, requests)

VOICE (active or passive)

VERB PHRASES

VERB-HEADS

Several modifiers (auxiliary verbs) + a lexical verb or head

last element

he was, she was waiting, she must have been waiting

lexical verbs

must have been being taken

modal perfect progressive passive

TENSED VS NON-TENSED FORM

finite non-finite

• the infinitive
• present participle
• past participle

Semantics

Word meaning

• Words have icon or arbitrary meaning
• splash, bang, crash
• dog, cat, car, bird

Different types of meaning

• CONCEPTUAL (alias denotative)

neutral or objective meaning

• CONNOTATIVE (additional communicative value beyond conceptual content) non-objective meaning, reflective-emotional and social values

Woman:

• human, female adult conceptual
• hard-working, gentle, unexperienced in cooking connotative

• SOCIAL (part of connotation related to social circumstances of use), different dialects and registers (formal, informal, slang, technical)

restroom vs. toilet

• AFFECTIVE meaning = emotional state of the speaker and his evaluation and attitude towards listener, related to attitude, feelings, emotions