Appunti inglese II - sintassi syntax

ADVERBS:

When? She always arrives early.

- How? In what way? He drives carefully. She eats slowly.

- Where? They go everywhere together.

- To what extent? It is terribly hot.

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Adverbs in English:

Only, just, well, still, how, next

Adverbs of manner (modo): really, well, slow, fast, hard, better, together

Adverbs of degree: more, just, so, very, quite, rather, almost, enough, too, rather, very.

Adverbs of frequency: always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom, never.

Adverbs of time: now, today, yesterday, tomorrow, later, before, a fter.

Adverbs of place: here, there, nowhere, inside, underground, everywhere, upstairs, east .

An adverb phrase consists of an adverb head and all its modifiers.

Only adverb phrases can modify adverbs but adverbs can have various types of complementation.

Premodifiers: adverb or adverb phrase

Head: adverb

Postmodifier: adverb (enough or indeed), prepositional phrase, infinitive clause

It doesn’t matter however fast you run

She is formerly of Cincinnati

She skates so very well indeed

We drove too quickly to see well

Adjectives and adverbs are usually premodified by intensifiers

AdjP - The hungry cat was feeling very aggressive

AdvP - My new shoes pinched me rather uncomfortably

The only way we can postmodify an adjective is by using the adverbs enough or indeed

AdjP - He is happy indeed

AdvP - She works hard enough

They can also be postmodified by prepositional phrases and infinitive clauses

AdjP - Mary is upset about her failure

AdvP - Susan was talking too softly to hear her.

Sue was running too fast to see the obstacle. GOOD POSTMODIFIER. It refers to fast.

Sue was running rather fast to reach the end line. NOT A POSTMODIFIER. It doesn’t refer to fast,

it’s the purpose of running.

He demanded that the child be more (premodifier of AdvP) appropriately (head of AdvP) punished.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

Prepositional phrases differ from the other types of phrases in that a preposition cannot stand alone

as the head of a phrase. A preposition has to be accompanied by a prepositional complement,

typically a noun phrase.

Ex. Jackie was searching in the cupboard.

Prepositions in English: on, in, at, since, for, ago, before, to, past, until, by, next to, beside, towards,

under, below, over, above, across, through, into, onto, from, of, off, out of, about.

PP can consist of:

Preposition + noun phrase (in the car)

- Preposition + adverb (above here)

- Preposition + clause (thank you for coming)

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[a [white]AdjP dress [with [a [dropped]AdjP waistline]NP]PP]NP

A dress: NP

White: AdjP

With a dropped waistline: PP (embedded: dropped AdjP, a waistline NP)

? They considered the book publishable.

? The book might become a best-seller.

? She has appeared on several TV talk shows.

?Some people regard her as a guru.

[a[long]AdjP vacation [on[the Caribbean island [of[Trinidad]NP or [Jamaica]NP]PP]NP]PP]NP

[his [[most]AdvP recent]AdjP, [[very]AdvP provocative]AdjP novel]NP

[the weather [in Vancouver]PP [on [any given day [in winter]PP]NP]PP

VERB PHRASE

The verb phrase includes the verb plus all the compulsory elements that go with the verb.

The VP carries information about mood, tense, modality, aspect, and voice and this is quite different

from the information carried by a noun phrase. The verb phrase has two functional parts:

the auxiliary, a grammatical morpheme carrying information about mood, tense, modality,

- and voice

Modal: can, may, will, should + base form

Perfect: have + -ed

Progressive: be + -ing

Passive: be + -ed

Support Auxiliary: do + base form

the main verb, a lexical morpheme carrying its lexical information and, usually, an

- inflection.

MOOD:

Divided into 4 categories:

Indicative: most of our statements

- Interrogative: starting a clause with an auxiliary verb or an interrogative pronoun.

- Imperative: base form in clause-initial position.

- Subjunctive: expresses a sense of the unlikely, a wish, a hope, the state of things as speakers

- wish or hope them to be. It describes hypothetical situations.

Beginning subordinate clauses with an auxiliary (Had Liz done that…), subordinators that

mark hypothetical conditions (If I were…) or base form (I suggest all production be carried

out I Italy)

TENSE:

An inflection on the verb that indicates the time reference. Tense is marked on the first verb of the

verb phrase. All verbs marked for tense are called 'finite' verbs whereas verbs that do not carry a

tense inflection (such as participles) are called 'nonfinite' verbs.

English has two tenses (present - past):

the -s inflection marks the present tense

- the -ed inflection marks the past tense.

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Verbs using both the -s and -ed forms are regular verbs.

Irregular verbs employ a number of inflections (such as -en for the participle inflection, written)

or no participle inflections at all (such as put or cut).

With future there is no tense, only aspect. Future is a type of modality.

ASPECT:

Aspect signals either the completion or the continuation of the process indicated by the verb in

English.

The perfect aspect expresses a sense of completion. Have + -ed participle/irregular participle

-

Liz has gone already.

The continuous aspect expresses continuity and relevance to the present. Be + -ing participle

-

Liz is doing the best work ever.

MODALITY:

The future is part of the modality system. Modal auxiliary verbs (will) or phrasal verbs (is going to)

refer to the future.

The modality system expresses a sense of obligation, volition, probability, permission, and

- ability. Modal auxiliary verb + base form.

Liz {must/should} go (obligation)

Liz will stop that immediately (volition)

Liz {may/might} go (probability)

Liz {can/may} go (permission)

Liz {can/could} do it (ability)

The modal will also expresses a 'future' sense.

Liz will do it tomorrow (future).

The same modal verb can have more than one function

That can’t be Sue (epistemic, logical)

- You can’t leave now (deontic)

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SEMI-AUXILIARIES:

Auxiliary verbs. Idiomatic verbs and phrasal verbs, they express modal meaning. Often:

be+participle+to.

Is supposed to

Is meant to

Is due to

Is going to

Is willing to

Is likely to

Is about to

Has (got) to

Needs to

VOICE:

Active and passive. They allow to view an action in different ways without changing the meaning.

Passive: Be + -ed

Ashley pushed Emily

Emily was pushed by Ashley

SUPPORTING AUXILIARY:

Usually used in interrogative forms, in clause-initial position and it is marked for tense like all first

verbs in the finite verb phrases.

SUM UP:

A verb phrase can include only one lexical verb or one or more auxiliaries up to a maximum of

four (might have been being + lexical verb).

Primary auxiliaries (aspect and voice): be, have, do

- Modal auxiliaries: can, could, shall should, will, would, may, must, might

-

Modal / Perfect / Progressive / Passive / Auxiliary support / Main verb

Might have been being interviewed PERFECT PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE

The song was being performed PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE

Main verb in -ed: previous be passive, previous have perfect

Main verb in –ing: previous be progressive

If a VP is composed of a single lexical verb, it will be marked for tense

If auxiliaries are present, the first will be marked for tense

NB: there are restrictions on the order of auxiliaries

Primary auxiliaries (have, be) are used to indicate aspect and voice

Aspect: progressive (she is walking) or perfect (she has eaten)

- Voice: active or passive

- SINTAX

The study of sentence structure.

Functions of nouns in a clause:

Subject

- Object

- Complement

-

Function of constituents in a sentence. A constituent is a string of words which syntactically behave

as a unit.

The cat devoured the rat the cat: subject. Devoured the rat: predicate (predicator: devour; direct

object: the rat)

Dynamic vs stative predicates

SUBJECT: Subjects are usually noun phrases. Generally they are the first NP we come across. They

are obligatory. They determine the form the verb takes.

In yes/no questions, the subject and the verb/operator swap position. Tag questions help identify the

subject.

Tim is running SP

Sue opens the door SPO

My sister gave me a present SPOO

I am tired SPC

I am here SPA

I put the flowers in a vase. Sue opened the door suddenly. My sister gave me a present for my

birthday. SPOA

All of these elements are mandatory for the clause to be grammatically correct except for adverbials

which are optional.

DIRECT OBJECT:

Direct Objects are often noun phrases. Their usual position is after the main verb. They have a

strong relationship with the verb that precedes them. They become the subjects of passive clauses.

Transitive vs intransitive

Verbs that require a direct object to complement their meaning are a transitive verb.

Verbs that do not need a direct object are intransitive verbs

I read an apple

- William blushed/cried/slept.

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Special cases

Harold moved the table

- Harold moved

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Implicit direct object

Pat was reading a book.

- Pat was reading.

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INDIRECT OBJECT:

Subject: agent

- Direct object: patient/undergoer

- Indirect object: goal/receiver or beneficiary

-

Indirect objects are usually NPs. They cannot occur without a following direct object. They always

precede the direct object. They can become the subjects of passive sentences like direct objects.

COMPLEMENT:

The element of a clause, which follows a copular verb such as be or seem.

Copular verbs: verbs that link a subject to a complement that refers to the subject.

Be, become. Seem, smell, sound, appear, feel, get, go, keep, grow, lie, look, prove, remain, resemble,

run, stay, taste, turn.

Subject complements:

Sophia is a teacher.

Violet is tall.

Jennifer seems clever.

Other verbs followed by complements

Verbs of change: become, make, paint, color, rub…

Sam became a doctor

She became angry

It made me successful

Verbs of perception: think, consider

Jim thought Sara immature

Tom considers me attractive.

Complements are typically NP or AdjP. When they complete the subject, they come after the verb.

When they complete the direct object, they come after it.

ADVERBIAL ELEMENT AND VERB COMPLEMENTATION:

ADVERBIALS:

They tell you about the how, why, where and when of the situations expressed by the respective

sentences. They can be optional and if they are they can move around in the clause.

Unfortunately , I won’t be able to come to the wedding.

- unfortunately

I won’t be able to come to the wedding, .

- unfortunately

I won’t be able, , to come to the wedding

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Compulsory adverbial elements occur because there are lexical