Riassunto esame Letteratura inglese, Prof. Dellarosa Franca, libro consigliato English Literature in context , Paul Poplawski

During the Restoration and 18 century, poets aimed to set a balance between the excesses of

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early 17 poetry and the spontaneity favored by Romantic poets like Wordsworth:

- They viewed the intensity of the images of Metaphysical poetry as politically and

epistemologically unstable, preferring a more measured approach.

Þ This balance was achieved in Alexander Pope's works

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Stylistically, Restoration and 18 poetry was dominated by the heroic couplet:

- This form is characterized by pairs or 'couplets' of iambic pentameter lines.

- Each line is composed of ten syllables arranged into five groups or 'feet' of unstressed and

stressed syllables

- Both lines in the pair end with the same sound.

Þ Moreover, the prevalence of this pattern also created an expectation in readers against

which the poet could play unexpected rhythms and rhymes

• Additionally, the topicality of Restoration poetry served to counterbalance the influence of

powerful figures.

• Over the course of the century, poetry also became more balanced demographically, with

working-class poets gaining recognition alongside their aristocratic counterparts.

• Themes and settings shifted from urban to rural, reflecting broader societal changes during

this period.

• Poetry in this period was dominated by two poets:

- John Dryden

- Alexander Pope

Þ Both were influenced by John Milton

John Milton excursus

• John Milton's association with Restoration literature is complex due to his active involvement

in the political and social disorders of the preceding era, especially:

- the English Civil Wars

- the Interregnum.

• While Milton's major works, such as "Paradise Lost," were published after 1660, placing him

outside the Restoration period in a chronological sense, his influence on Restoration literature

cannot be ignored:

- Despite being considered a writer from a previous generation, Milton's alignment with

republican, Puritan, and Parliamentary ideals during the Civil Wars distinguishes him from

the Restoration poets who emerged under Stuart monarchy.

• Milton's opposition to the Restoration of the Stuart monarchy is evident in his writings,

including essays critical of the regime:

- However, his significant literary contributions during the Restoration era, particularly

"Paradise Lost," suggest an engagement with the period he opposed politically.

Þ So, while Milton may not be traditionally labeled as a Restoration poet, his works

remain essential to the literary landscape of the time, reflecting his influence on

Restoration literature.

John Dryden

• During the late 17th century, John Dryden took inspiration from Milton's Paradise Lost despite

their different political visions:

- Indeed, Dry den aligned himself with monarchs while Milton successively rejected them.

• However, Dryden's career as a writer was varied and this allowed him to write on topical

subjects such as:

- Cromwell's death

- Charles II's ascension.

• One of Dryden's notable works is “Annus Mirabilis”:

- It focuses on the events of 1666, including the Great Fire of London and the defeat of the

Dutch navy.

• He also made a name for himself in the Restoration theatre, producing plays like:

- “The Conquest of Granada”

- “Marriage à la Mode”.

• However, it was during the Exclusion Crisis of the late 1670s and early 1680s that Dryden

achieved some of his most important poetic works, including:

- Absalom and Achitophel

- MacFlecknoe

- The Medall

- Religio Laici.

Þ These works contain implicit references to topical events and require familiarity with the

political context of the time.

• Dryden's poetry challenges the notion that literature and politics are separate, as political

issues can represent literary ones and vice versa:

- For example, “Absalom and Achitophel” portrays:

§ Charles as the biblical David

§ Shaftesbury as Achitophel

§ The Duke of Monmouth as Absalom

Þ Reflecting the political climate of the Exclusion Crisis.

• “MacFlecknoe”, on the other hand, addresses concerns of literary succession by criticizing

Thomas Shadwell.

• This merging of literary and political themes characterizes the poetry of the Restoration era:

- The period has been productive for historicist approaches to literature, highlighting the

connection between the literary and the political.

Alexander Pope

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Alexander Pope's literary contributions during the Restoration and 18 century period marked

a shift in focus from topical poetry towards broader themes associated with the Enlightenment

especially through in his essays, especially:

- "An Essay on Criticism" (1711)

- "An Essay on Man" (1733-4)

• In "An Essay on Criticism," Pope delineates the principles of good literary criticism,

advocating for a harmonious relationship between writers and critics grounded in nature:

- His concept of nature combines late Renaissance classicism with Newtonian physics,

emphasizing rules and standardization.

Þ Also, Pope's exhortation to emulate Homer emphasizes his belief in adhering to established

literary norms, anticipating later Romantic interpretations of nature.

• The analogy of the "well-proportion'd Dome" illustrates Pope's vision of criticism that is

consistent with his sense of the relationship between:

- Nature

- Rules

- Standardization

Þ Such unity explains why the period was for long known as Augustan, although it is important

to note that for Pope, symmetry is best seen at distance

• In "An Essay on Man," Pope adopts a symmetrical poetic form to explore philosophical

investigations evocating Milton's approach in "Paradise Lost."_

- While both works begin with the motif of a garden tempting with forbidden fruit, Pope

differs by employing the epistolary form instead of an epic, and the heroic couplet instead

of blank verse.

Þ Pope's choice of the epistle and the heroic couplet allows him to navigate between apparently

opposing doctrines, embodying a balance with implications across various domains:

§ This balance is not merely stylistic but carries epistemological, ontological, poetical,

and political significance.

In contrast to "An Essay on Criticism," which aligns literary criticism with

o Newtonian principles, "An Essay on Man" interprets Newtonian philosophy

through its carefully structured poetic form.

• The symmetry of "An Essay on Man" reflects Pope's understanding of Newton's vision of the

universe, where equal and opposite reactions tolerate a harmonious whole.

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So, during the middle years of the 18 century, emerged a notable shift in poetry, potentially

in response to the static and balanced universe proposed by Alexander Pope:

- This shift was marked by a renewed emphasis on the pastoral, with poets turning away

from urban and conceptual themes towards the rural and earthy.

• This period of poetry has been challenging to categorize, sometimes considered as the poetry

of sensibility or even referred to as 'pre-Romanticism.' :

- However, the term sensibility carries specific connotations closer to our modern

understanding of sensitivity, and it's uncertain whether the poetry of this period truly

embodied this sensibility.

Þ One poem often regarded as representative of this shift is Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a

Country Church Yard" (1749-1751):

§ In this elegy, the narrator finds himself alone in a church graveyard at evening,

reflecting on the simple lives of the poor buried there.

§ This contemplation hints at a sense of loss and nostalgia for a simpler, rural existence,

free from the tumultuous events of England's history, such as the Civil Wars and

Interregnum.

Drama

• The Stuart Restoration era marked a significant revival for drama, particularly in England,

where the theatre had been banned by Parliament since 1642:

- With the return of Charles II from France drama was restored on the English stage.

- Charles II permitted the operation of two theatres in London:

§ the King's

§ the Duke's.

- Additionally, a notable innovation occurred as women were allowed to act for the first

time, contributing to the diversification of talent in the theatrical landscape:

§ Notable actresses like Nell Gwynn rose to fame during this period, enriching the

English stage with their performances.

• However, the initial years following the restoration of drama were characterized by a sense

of experimentation and adaptation:

- John Dryden's "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy" in 1668 marked a fundamental moment in

this transition.

- In this work, Dryden wrote a debate on contemporary drama, comparing English and

French theatrical traditions.

- Through this discourse, Dryden not only documented but also shaped the terms of critical

analysis for English drama, offering to the English drama a vision for its evolution and

confidence.

• Three years later, George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham, showcased a satirical perspective

on the uncertainties of the early Restoration drama in his play "The Rehearsal" (1671):

- Mostly important, the play also introduces a tension that would continue to shape the

London stage until the close of the century concerning:

§ The relationship between the city and the countryside and the disparities between

them.

Þ Indeed, the theater often raises questions about the authenticity of identity, whether it is innate

or enacted:

§ Throughout the Restoration period, London theater explored various identity

issues, such as:

whether the city's rise as a center of international trade would erode its

o inhabitants' morals, transforming them into mere consumers.

It also delved into the idea that even sexual identities could be changed

o through performance.

• However, between 1700 and 1737, the British theater experienced a relative decline,

attributed to various factors such as:

- The rise of Italian opera

- Changes in theater architecture

- Decreased urban-rural tension

- The emergence of the novel.

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Despite this, the 18 century witnessed the creation of several lasting plays that would leave

an important impact on British culture:

§ John Gay's "The Beggar's Opera" (1728) innovatively combined drama and music,

foreshadowing the modern musical theater genre. Its satirical portrayal of wealthy

criminals gained added political significance during Walpole's premiership.

§ In 1730, Henry Fielding presented "The Life and Death of Tom Thumb the Great,"

exploring the bound