Linguistica inglese 2

INTERPERSONAL MEANINGS

Why is it important to focus on speakers? Interpersonal meanings explore aspects of interaction between

speakers. The way we interact when we speak depends on and also influences the relationship we have with

other speakers and the language choices we make.

Interpersonal meanings explore aspects of interaction also in writing. When we write we may decide to

occupy different positions in relation to what we say (=proposition); we may endorse a proposition explicitly

or implicitly, we may decide not to do so and take some distance, or we may decide to appear objective. We

generally write alone but when we write we inevitably engage with other people’s opinions or writings, but

we can do so in different degrees.

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FROM LAST YEAR Mood is Subject+Finite+Modal Adjuncts. The FINITE is a specific part of the

Verbal Group that expresses tense, polarity and modality (when present).

modality refers to the expression of attitudes, possibilities, abilities, obligations, or necessity within

language. It’s a way of indicating the speaker's stance on the reality or likelihood of an event or situation,

often conveying elements like certainty, doubt, permission, or obligation.

There can be an Epistemic Modality, when expresses degrees of certainty, possibility, or knowledge about a

situation. It shows the speaker’s attitude toward the truth of a statement (“it might rain tomorrow”).

Or a Deontic Modality when conveys necessity, permission or obligation, actions that are permitted,

required or prohibited (“you musy leave now”).

Modality is often expressed through modal auxiliary verbs, but also nouns, adjectives and adverbs.

Modality can vary in degree and polarity (‘must’ conveys a stronger obligation than ‘should’, and ‘might

not’ conveys a weaker negation than ‘cannot’).

Polarity is a choice between “yes” and “no”.

But “yes” and “no” are not the only possibilities in exchanges. There are intermediate degrees, various kinds

of indeterminacy that fall in-between. Examples are ‘sometimes’ and ‘maybe’. These intermediate degrees,

between the positive and negative poles, are known collectively as Modality = The grammatical system that

is used by speakers and writers to make assessments from the point of view of probability, usuality,

temporality, typicality, willingness, inclination, capacity and obligation (then leading to modalization and

modulation).

Proposition = The content of a sentence. It does not pertain to interpersonal meanings, but it is useful to

know what it means as we will mention it frequently.

Mood = The mood is that part of the clause that includes Subject and Finite. As we will see it can also

include Modal Adjuncts.

Projection = In a sentence you can have a projecting and a projected clause. In the projecting clause you

must have a mental or a verbal process. Only these process can project. Mental processes project thoughts,

verbal processes project locutions.

Modalization = probability and usuality (it is likely that).

Modulation = inclination or willingness (it is necessary/required). Modality

They can be expressed through modal adjuncts and modal verbs.

Modal verbs:

In English a single form may be used to express more than one type of modality. For example, both “must”

and “may”.

Modal adjuncts: + actually, entirely and utterly

Value of modality High

= value of validity of what the author is saying. value if it is certain and

Median Low

happens always (must). is just probable and only usually happens (supposed, should). if it’s

possible and only sometimes happens (may).

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Ex. “It is likely that the age variable affects many other variables, such as the friends a child plays with”.

Modalization with median probability as a value of modality.

“The teacher must listen carefully to what the students say and model language patterns”. Modulation with

high probability.

“Finding the right ingredients can sometimes be tough”. Modalization low.

A stylistics perspective on Modality

Language is often imbued with the attitudes of a speaker: indeed, language is one of the central resources

which we use to communcate our opinions and feelings. Modality is one of the major systems involved in

the communication of attitudes through language and connects with issues of point of view. These consider

who speaks and who sees when analysing the perspective from which a story is told.

Texts and narratives can be told in the first, second, or third person by narrators who exist within

(homodiegetic) or outside of (heterodiegetic) the story and can use modality. For example, consider the

transformations of the same sentence using different elements:

a) I have a day off

b) I should have a day off

c) I want a day off

d) I might have a day off

Boulomaic modality is the modal system of ‘desire’, used to indicate the extent to which a speaker finds

a particular proposition desirable or undesirable. Modal and lexical verbs such as ‘hope’, ‘wish’, ‘regret’,

‘love’, ‘hate’, ‘like’, ‘dislike’, ‘want’, and so on are central in expressing this type of modality.

“Suddenly she wished he would just disappear. She wanted to push him away, and would have but she was

terrified of what might happen if she touched him.”

Perception modality is a sub-category of epistemic modality, so speaker’s degree of confidence or lack

of confidence in the truth of a proposition. In this type of modality, tho, the speaker’s confidence in the truth

of a proposition is based not on their own knowledge but on their faculties of perception. Modal adverbs

such as ‘obviously’, ‘clearly’, ‘evidently’, ‘apparently’, and constructions like ‘obvious that’, ‘clear that’,

express perception modality.

NOT all verbs which represent perception processes are necessarily modal. Sentences such as ‘I saw the

show’ or ‘I heard the phone’ are just categorical assertions that represent a speaker’s observations. In

contrast, in statements such as ‘I hear you got a promotion’ or ‘I see you’ve got a new dress’, ‘hear’ and ‘see’

additionally indicate the speaker’s belief about something. Perception modality refers to external signs in

order to indicate a speaker’s commitment to the truth of a proposition.

(Se hai dubbi, sostituisci il verbo con “credo che” e vedi se ha senso).

ORIENTATION OF MODALITY

The analysis of the source of modality and its orientation provides linguistic clues for understanding

writers/speakers’ social roles, their attitudes towards their cultural context and the power relations they

entertain with their audience in the communicative/ situational context.

“You know, it is interesting that he found a knife exactly like the one the boy bought”. The proposition is « he

found a knife exactly like the one the boy bought». This is preceded by another clause that explicitly

provides the speaker’s opinion in relation to the proposition «It is interesting». The speaker thinks that the

finding is interesting, but he is cautious; he does not say «I am interested in the fact that …..» but he says «It

is interesting». By doing so he objectifies his interest and takes distance! = Explicit Objective Orientation of

Modality.

POINT OF VIEW → Can be Explicit, Implicit, Absent (apparently).

a) I think it is the same knife: point of view explicitly expressed.

b) It could be the same knife: point of view implicitly expressed.

c) It is the same knife: no modality and no point of view, this statement looks like a fact, not an opinion.

1. “I think it is the same knife”

2. “It is possible/interesting that it is the same knife, but I am not totally convinced”

Both examples contain explicit orientation. But there is a difference between the two. The difference is not

in the clause that expresses the proposition, but in the clause that expresses the orientation (highlighted).

In 1. the pronoun “I” shows that the orientation is the subjective position of the writer. In 2. the pronoun “It”

shows that the orientation is objectified and the that the writer takes distance.

The first one is an Explicit Subjective Orientation

The second one is an Explicit Objective Orientation

---- 1. “It can be the same knife”

2. “It is probably the same knife”

In 1. the writer expresses his opinion in relation to the proposition with the modal verb “can”; can is a finite

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verb and hence grammatically is close to the subject providing a subjective example of orientation

In 2. the writer expresses his opinion with the modal adjunct “probably”; unlike the modal verb, this is not

grammatically connected to the subject and hence provides a more objective case than 1.

SUMMING UP ORIENTATION

Explicit forms = more than one clause; but BE CAREFUL, there has to be a projection (or a multiword

equivalent expression) with the projecting clause expressing speaker’s orientation and the projected the

proposition;

Implicit forms = modal verbal operator or Modal Adjunct are in the Mood Block of one clause/proposition;

Explicit subjective = Orientation is expressed in the projecting clause with Senser/Sayer + projecting

Process;

Explicit objective = Orientation is expressed by an “It Clause” as projecting clause;

Implicit subjective = modality expressed by a modal verbal operator;

Implicit objective = modality expressed by a Modal Adjunct or expressions of modality.

Exercices: →

“My mother had a great deal of trouble with me, but I think she enjoyed it” Explicit Subjective.

→

“The strongest might weaken and the wisest might err” Implicit Subjective.

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“I think an artist has always to be out of step with his time” Explicit Subjective.

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“I suppose that I shall have to die beyond my means” Explicit Subjective. →

“When people are free to do as they please, they usually imitate each other” Explicit Subjective.

→

“Maybe this world is another planet’s hell” Implicit Objective. →

“It is possible that the contemplation of cruelty will not make us human but cruel” Explicit Objective.

→

“I should be out of here” Implicit Subjective. →

“I think there might have been a misuinderstanding” Explicit Subjective.

→

“I need to set my face towards new horizons” Implicit Subjective.

ENGAGEMENT

The Engagement System, like Orientation of Modality, is concerned with resources for positioning the

author’s voice with respect to the various pro