Lingua e traduzione inglese 2 - Grammatica inglese (lezioni 1-20)

Formazione: Passato Perfetto di essere + -ing del verbo

Questi tempi verbali possono essere utilizzati per creare un contrasto tra azioni che sono avvenute nel passato (Passato Semplice) e una situazione "più passata" (Passato Perfetto o Passato Perfetto Progressivo).

Le espressioni "by + tempo" e "by the time" sono comunemente utilizzate con questi tempi verbali.

Le espressioni di tempo possono essere molto utili nella scelta tra i tre tempi verbali.

Il momento della giornata a volte determina se utilizzare il Passato Semplice o il Presente Perfetto.

Se due azioni passate sono vicine nel tempo o strettamente connesse, l'uso del Passato Perfetto viene spesso evitato.

I tempi verbali Futuro Semplice e Futuro Progressivo, Presente Semplice, Presente Progressivo, l'ausiliare "will + verbo" e "be going to + forma base del verbo" mostrano tutti significati futuri, con un avverbio di tempo futuro.

Il Presente Semplice viene utilizzato per eventi programmati (eventi pianificati ora per il futuro), quindi ha senso utilizzare il presente semplice.

Will viene utilizzato quando viene presa una decisione improvvisa o piani definiti e quando viene fatta una previsione che

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speaker is fairly sure of. Will it is not used as frequently as the other forms are, by native speakers.

Be going to is much more common. It is used for less certain prediction, when a situation, in the present, leads to the prediction, and when one is discussing intentions or plans.

Present Progressive is used for arrangements, with not much difference between Present Progressive and be going to.

Future Progressive, uses either will or be going to + be + -ing form of the verb.

Future Simple is formed:

1. Will + base form of the verb;
2. Present Simple: base form of the verb + -s in the third person singular;
3. Am, are, is + going to + base form of the verb;
4. Present Progressive: am, are, is + -ing form of the verb.

Future Progressive is formed:

1. Will + be + -ing form;
2. Am, are, is + going to + be + -ing form.

When indicated a point in the time (simple tense).

While denotes a length of time (progressive).

In either case, one half of the sentence is some form of present, even though the idea is

1. Future Perfect: will + have + Past Participle of the verb
2. Future Perfect Progressive: will + have + been + base verb form + -ing

This happens also in the first conditional.

Future Perfect and Future Perfect Progressive

Future Perfect, like one of the future forms, uses will, and like Present Perfect, it also uses have. It is used for actions that will be completed by a specific time in the future. It is used with stative or non-action verbs. The Future Perfect focuses on a number or an amount (127 pages, lots of, etc.). It is linked to a point in time. For this reason, it is usually used with yet, already, and amounts or quantities.

Future Perfect Progressive uses been + base verb form + -ing in addition to will and have. Like all progressive forms, this tense is used to talk about action in progress at a certain time in the future. It is used with action verbs. The Future Perfect Progressive focuses on a length of time (for a week, for two years, etc.). It expresses an action in progress. For this reason, it is usually used with duration of time.

We don't

Use the Future Perfect Progressive with verbs not normally used in the continuous form. It is formed: will + have been + -ing form of the verb. In both tenses, will is the auxiliary verb. In addition, as with Present Perfect and Present Perfect Progressive, some verbs (live, work, teach, etc.) can be used in either form with little or no difference in meaning.

Negative Yes or No Questions and Tag Questions

Yes/no questions can begin with a form or an auxiliary like do, does or did, don't, doesn't or didn't, have or has, haven't or hasn't, can or can't, will or won't. They are formed: (wh-) + auxiliary (negative form) + subject + verb. They are usually used to get information or to comment on a situation.

Tag questions use the appropriate form (number or tense) of be or the auxiliary (the appropriate form of do or a modal) and the pronoun that matches the subject. They are formed:

1. Positive statement + comma + negative auxiliary + subject;
2. Negative statement + comma + positive auxiliary + subject.

Statement + comma + positive auxiliary + subject. They are usually used to check information, they just want the information to be confirmed.

Remember that positive statements have negative tag questions and negative statements have positive tag questions.

Remember that people who ask negative questions usually expect positive answers. A speaker asking a negative question with a rising intonation expects an answer. In this case, in fact, tag questions are used to get information and are more similar to Yes or No questions. If the negative question form is being used as a comment, the intonation falls.

Additions: So, Too, Neither, Not either and But. Additions are made to avoid repetitions. They are clauses and short sentences which follow a statement and express similarity to or contrast with information in the statement.

So and Too, in affirmative statements, and Neither and Not either, in negative statements, are used to express similarity.

1. In a positive statement: so + auxiliary + too or just

1. In a positive statement: sentence + comma + too or just object + too;

2. In a negative statement: neither + auxiliary + subject or just object pronoun + neither.

Remember that neither = not either. You can use neither only in negative statements. You can use either in negative statements when the verb is in the negative form.

But is used to express contrast.

Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds are base verbs + -ing used as nouns. They are usually followed by a preposition or a prepositional phrase. They are usually used as the subject of a sentence. Gerund plus possessive is very formal written English.

Infinitives are to + base verb in form. They are used after some adjectives. They are also used after some verbs. Verbs like help and dare can be followed by the infinitive but also by the base form of the verb without the preposition to.

Often the gerund and the infinitive have essentially the same meaning, so there is a lot of rote memorization involved in learning to use them correctly.

When you

use these tenses, remember that there are four main patterns for these structures: 1. verb + Gerund (+ object); 2. verb + Infinitive; 3. verb + object + Infinitive (+ object); 4. verb + preposition + Gerund (+ object). Remember that there are lists of verbs which follow these patterns, and some of them just need to be memorized. Some verbs can take a Gerund or an Infinitive with little or no change in meaning. Examples include begin, continue, hate, like, love, prefer, start. Some other verbs can take either a Gerund or an Infinitive, but there is a difference in meaning. Examples include forget, remember, try, stop. Causative verbs Causative verbs include: make, have, let, help and get. They are used as auxiliaries, to show that one person can cause (or require, permit, persuade) another person to do something. Causative verbs express the idea of someone causing something to take place. They can be similar in meaning to passive verbs. The main difference is that, the passive voice is used to

Place emphasis on the action taken; on the contrary, causative verbs place the stress on the fact that someone causes something to happen. They can have both an active and a passive form.

1. Make means require, force, cause and is followed by the object pronoun + base form of the verb (infinitive without to). It expresses the idea that a person requires another person to do something.
2. Have means cause; its structure is the same as make, though its meaning is more neutral. It expresses the idea that a person wants something to be done for them. It is often used when speaking about various services.
3. Let means allow, permit; its structure is the same as make and have. It can be substituted by allow, but their construction is different (allow is followed by the object pronoun + infinitive of the verb).
4. Help means assist and it is followed by the base form of the verb, with and without to. It can be followed by the infinitive or by the base form of the verb.
5. Get means convince, persuade, and

it’s followed by the object pronoun + the infinitive of the verb. It expresses the idea that a person wants something to be done for them.

These causative verbs are very common, and often sound more natural than their non-causative equivalents.

Phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs are also called two-word verbs, they are made up of a verb and a particle (like a preposition).

A phrasal verb is a verb combined with a preposition or adverb (or both), called particle.

The particle might look like prepositions, but they act different.

The particle often does not help make the meaning clear out of the context.

Most transitive phrasal verbs are separable (the object can go before or after the particle).

Intransitive phrasal verbs cannot be separated.

Phrasal verbs are often used in everyday conversation.

They are less formal than single-word verbs and are used more frequently.

Often the single-word equivalent sounds funny or overly formal to native speakers.

If you try adding adjectives to direct objects, so

that there are more than three words in the , the verb becomes inseparable. More than four words is too long to fit between a verb and a particle. Phrasal verbs can have more than one meaning. You must be familiar with the concept of idioms, and you might have already noticed that phrasal verbs are much like idioms, in that their meaning is greater than the sum of their parts. The verb means something different from each of the words that make up the verb. This implies that its meaning is usually very hard to decipher, if you base on the meanings of its single elements. Their structure usually depends on the type of verb: 1. Transitive verbs have direct objects. Direct objects can go before or after the particle. However, if the direct object is a pronoun, then the object must precede the particle. Not all transitive verbs are separable. A few transitive phrasal verbs must be separated. 2. Intransitive verbs have no object, so they are not separable from their particle. When the object

is composed of numerous elements (nouns, adjectives, modifiers, etc.) it should follow the particle.

Some of the phrasal verbs frequently occur with a gerund. They always require a gerund, if the object of the preposition isn't a noun.

Adjective Clauses with Subject Relative Pronouns

Subject relative pronouns are who, which, that and whose (with a noun).

These subject relative pronouns are the subject of clauses within a full sentence.

Relative pronouns can refer to a person, to an object or to an animal.

1. Who can only refer to a person. It is mainly used in formal (written) language.
2. Which can only refer to animals or to objects. It mainly used in formal (written) language.
3. That refers to animals, objects and people. It is mainly used in informal (oral) language.
4. Whose is used to express possession. It is the possessive form of who.
5. Whom is the object of who. It follows a verb.