Fonologia e fonetica

4 ottobre 2021

Lingua Inglese

Phonetics = deals with sounds

IPA= International Phonetics Alphabet

Phonology

= deals with pronunciation patterns, syllable patterns, stress, accent and

intonation patterns.

• Þ

[...] allophone

• Þ

/…/ phoneme

• Phonology focuses on the relationship between the sounds and the pronunciation

patterns and the way which sound contrast to each other

• How sounds function in a language

• Two sounds meet and change

• The unit of phonology is the phonemes

• Stress is related to a word

• A phrase or a sentence can have an accent

• Intonation is also a way to carry a meaning

• The difference between two worlds relay on one single sound

• Different sounds mark different meaning

• Different sounds might signal different grammatical meaning

• Intonation

Morphology = form of English words and how the different English labels interact

Syntax

= the order of elements in the sentence

Phonemes

• Vowels are phonemes

• Þ

Allophone the different realization of a sound which is determined by a specific

context

• A phoneme can occupy any position:

- beginning

- middle

- end

We have to count the number of the syllable from the last to the first 1

5 ottobre 2021

Lingua Inglese

Phonetics

• Þ

Phonetics is about the sounds the physical characteristics of the sound, so the

way they are produced, the manner they are produced

• The unit is the phone (sound)

• It can be divided in three main branches:

Þ

- Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech sounds:

- Auditory phonetics related to the way we perceived sounds;

Þ Þ

- Articulatory phonetics deals with the way sounds are produced

• Sounds can be described accord to three different characteristics.

Consonants

• is the sound produced? How

Manner of articulation modo di articolazione (How

Þ

does the air flow from the mouth?)

• part of the human vocal system is used?)

Place of articulation (What

• strong is the air flowing? Do the vocal cords vibrate?)

Degree of sonority (How

• Places involved in the production of the sound:

- alveolars

Alveolar ridge (the end of the teeth when they hit the palate)

Þ

- dentals

Teeth Þ

- labials

Lips Þ

- glottals

Glottis Þ

- palatals

Palate Þ

- velars

Velum Þ

- uvulars

Uvula Þ

- pharyngeals

Pharynx Þ

• Þ

b-p bilabials

• Þ

t-d post-alveolar

• Þ

k-g velar

• Þ

s-z alveolar

• Þ

f-v labio-dental

Þ

-ʒ post-alveolar

• ò Þ

m nasal bilabial

• Þ

n nasal alveolar

• Þ

r alveolar

• Þ

l alveolar

• Þ

j palatal

• Þ

w labio-velar

• Þ

h glottal

•

Manner of articulation

• Þ

Stops/ plosives (occlusive/plosive) the air is blocked and flows in one single blow

(p,b - t,d – k,g)

• Þ

Fricatives the air is released very slowly (h – s,z – f,v - -ʒ…)

ò

• Affricatives ʧ - ʤ

Þ

• Þ

Nasal the air is released to the nose (n – m - ŋ) 2

• Þ

Approximant r – l – j - w

• Þ r r

Vibrant the Italian is different from the English

®

MINIMAL PAIRS pairs of words that differ in a phoneme/sound, changing their

meaning. They share the same place of articulation and manner of articulation, but they

are distinguished by the degree of sonority

Places of articulation

• They are divided in two different groups:

- active articulator lips and tongue (move)

Þ

Þ

- passive articulator teeth, alveolar ridge, palate (cannot move)

Voiced and voiceless consonants

• Voiced vocal cords are closed and vibrate /b, g, d../

Þ

• Voiceless vocal cords are open and don’t vibrate /p, k, t.../

Þ

• Glottal stop [ʔ]

Þ 3

E. Consonants

Fortis Lenis

vs.

• Fortis voiceless consonants, stronger sounds (sorde)

Þ

• Lenis voiced consonants, weaker sounds (sonore)

Þ

• /p/ vs. /b/, /k/ vs. /g/

• The difference is important because when we produce lenis consonants there is

a vibration of vocal cords. This kind of sounds do not undergo many changes,

while fortis consonants undergo various changes in production.

• They behave differently when we speak.

• Lenis (voiced consonants) are never aspirated or glottalized.

• Fortis (voiceless consonants) are aspirated or glottalized.

Homorganic and non-homorganic consonants

• Homo same

Þ

• Organ “speech organ”

Þ

• Homorganic consonants are those sound that share the same place of

articulation

• Difference homorganic consonants and non-homorganic consonants undergo

Þ

different phonological processes (they behave differently). The difference is

important because they produce different articulations of the sounds.

• /p m/

• /b m/

• /t d/

• /s z/

• Þ

heterorganic

Non-homorganic are also called /p t/ - /n b/

®

Across word boarders when two words

meet the sounds that are at the end of one word

and at the beginning at the following word, crash

together and produce a change in the way we

produce the sounds.

2

Stops (plosive/occlusive)

• Occlusive are consonants in which the vocal trat is block somewhere, so that the

airflow ceases.

• The occlusion can be: Þ

- with the tongue blade (parte laminare della lingua) [t], [d];

Þ

- tongue body [k], [g];

Þ

- lips [p], [b]; Þ

- glottis (allophone) [ʔ]

Nasals

• The vocal trat is blocked, but thew air flows continues through the nose:

Þ

- bilabial /m/

Þ

- alveolar /n/

Þ

- velar /ŋ/ 4

Fricatives Þ h s,z f,v ʃ, ʒ Θ, ð

• 4 minimal pairs and homorganic pairs

• The air flow isn’t block

• Þ

Text + h (has, he, him) with aspiration

• Þ

H (has, he, him) + text without aspiration

Affricates Þ ʧ, ʤ

• They have a complete obstruction of the airflow in the vocal tract (stops)

• The obstruction is also released gradually (fricatives)

• Þ

They have homorganic pairs chair, page

Approximant

• Þ

/r/ is post-alveolar rest

• Þ

/j/ is palatal yard

• Þ

/w/ is palate-velar way

• They behave like consonants and vowels at the same time

• Þ

The vocal trats is narrowed there is a stop at the level of the lips or at the level of

the tongue

• Usually we go from the active to the passive articulator

• From the point of view of articulation they behave like consonants, but phonetically

speaking they are considered like vowels

Assimilation

• It is a sound change in which some phonemes (typically consonants or vowels)

change to become more similar to other nearby sounds.

• Assimilation can occur either within a word or between words. 5

6 ottobre 2021

Lingua Inglese

Þ approximant

/j/ and /w/ (but also called semi-consonants or semi-vowels)

Biunivocity Þ one sound corresponds to on symbol and one symbol corresponds to one

sound

Allophones

• It is the phonetic realization (a different form) of a phoneme distributed in specific and

limited position (specific context)

• It is another way to pronounce the phoneme

• Allophones provide information which is redundant and not necessary

• It doesn’t contribute to the word’s meaning

• NON-DISTINCTIVE

Allophones have properties that are called

• CONTEXT DEPENDENT

• [ ]

We use the to represent the allophones (variation of a phoneme/the phonetic

narrow transcription

realization). This is called and it means that it is closer to the

way a word is pronounced.

Phonemes

• / / broad

We use the to represent the phonemes (phonemic realization). This is called

transcription and it means that is closer to the way a word is perceived.

• DISTINCTIVE

Phonems have properties that are called

Þ

‘ it is an accent usually placed before the tonic syllable. A tonic syllable means that the

syllable is stressed, it carries a stress.

Þ

Atonic syllable is unstressed 6

Þ

[ ] dark l (es: little, always)

ɫ - l + C – C +l (C= consonant)

- l + w

- l + ᴓ (at the end)

Þ

/ l / clear l (es: law, pale)

- l + V (V= vowel)

- at the beginning

Þ

[ l̩ ] syllabic

- l

It means that the can form a syllable in some cases

[ɫ] is not a phoneme

Clusters Þ a group of two or more consonants in a word and it creates a syllable. For

/spl/ /ts/

example, or

Difference between phonemes and allophones

• Þ

In the same context, such as XVC Cat – Sat we have different words and

different meaning

• Definition of phoneme: smallest unit of speech distinguishing one word from

another

• Þ

/b, c, m, s, r/ phonemes in English

• Þ

/n, / phonemes in English

ŋ

• Þ

/b, t/ phonemes in English

• bell bet

• these two sounds are in the same context (Xat), but create different meaning

CONTRASTIVE DISTRIBUTION

they are in : two sounds in the same

Þ (phoneme)

frame contrast

• Þ

[ ] allophone in English

ɫ • tell tell it 7

• these two sounds are in different context (teX), but create the same meaning

COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION

(same word) they are in : two sounds

Þ (allophone)

in the same frame do not contrast

• Other allophones of /l/

• /l/ + /j/ (l plus a palatal)

[ l̠ʲ ] (value)

Þ

• [ ]

ɫ [ l̠ʲ ] [ l ] [ l̩ ]

• four different allophones of /l/;

• they are perceived as /l/;

• context dependent mutually exclusive positions

they are and appear in

meaning that we can find only one of this allophones in a context

11 ottobre 2021

Lingua Inglese

Aspiration of stops

• ®

They are /p t k/ FORTIS STOPS (voiceless: vocal cords don’t vibrate)

• ®

/p t k/ + V + C (initial tonic syllable) they are aspirated

es: pet, tap, cap

• The realization is [pʰ tʰ kʰ]

[pʰa:s]

®

es: ‘pass

[tʰaim]

®

‘time [kʰʌm]

®

‘come

• Þ

no aspiration

There is when C + /p t k/ + V

es: spy, stay, sky, spot, stop, scot

• Þ

no aspiration

There is for LENIS STOPS /b d g/

es: but, dot, got

Syllabic consonants

• A syllable needs a vowel vowels

Stress position ®

• The peak is a part of a syllable consonants

Unstressed position ®

• The syllable peak is usually the vowel

®

es: sad /sæd/

CVC

/ ʹsæ.də/

®

sadder ‘CVCV 8

Syllabic consonants (syllabic allophones)

• The consonants are /m n l/

• They are in:

• unstressed syllables

• often after alveolar consonants /t, d, s, z/

• also after /ð, f, v/

Þ /t, d, s, z/ + /m, n, l / [m̩ , n̩ , ļ ]

à

• The realization is [m̩ , n̩ , ļ ]

• Most varieties of English have syllabic consonants

[ ˈbɒtļ ]

®

es: bottle [ ˈriðṃ ]

®

rhythm [ ˈbʌtn̩ ]

®

button

Schwa

• A different realization is with /ə/

• Never in stressed position

/ ˈbɒtəl /

• Þ

ə + C bottle

• When its syllabic:

[ lı.sņ ]

es: listen (2 syllables)

[ lı.sņ.ıŋ ]

listening ( 3 syllables)

• When it isn’t syllabic:

[ lıs.nıŋ ]

es: listening (2 syllables)

Stop + Nasals stops

/p,b,k,g,t,d/ + /m n ŋ /

• The consonants are

• The realization: the oral occlusion is kept while producing both the stop and the

nasal

• homorganic context

In a [‘step ˌ mɅðə]

®

es: step-mother (both bilabial Cs)

The oral occlusion is kept while

there is a block, producing both p and m.

we stop before “mother”

• non-homorganic context

In a [‘sli:pnis]

®

es: slipness

anticipation of the nasal The air is released through the nose

Glottal stop [ʔ]

• It began in Norfolk and in rural dialects

• th

In received pronunciation form the early 20 century

• Now it is common in London, West Yo