English Language 2 + mock test per esame

GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION

Sentences can be divided into subparts and subparts are called constituents. Constituents have specific roles in sentences

and may consist of single words or of larger units of two or more words.

; .

ES: the cat devoured the fish --> [the cat] [devoured [the fish]] ES: the fish devoured the cat --> [the fish] [devoured [the cat]]

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Concerning the semantic definition, the subject of a sentence is the constituent that tells us who performs the action

denoted by the verb (who is the agent). It also tells us who or what the sentence is about.

The predicate specifies what the subject is engaged in doing. Square brackets are used to indicate groups of words that

belong together, that have the same function within a sentence.

We can distinguish:

• dynamic verbs: they describe actions that can be performed by the subject

;

ES: the police arrested the bank robber ;

ES: that stupid waiter spilt soup all over my jacket

;

ES: she probably ate more than twelve biscuits .

ES: this factory produces a revolutionary new type of smartphones

• stative verbs: ;

ES: my brother wears a green overcoat ;

ES: the committee disliked her proposal ;

ES: the girl with the red hat stood on the platform

.

ES: this flower smells nice

Concerning the structural definition, subject are usually NPs. In affirmative sentences, the Subject is usually the first NP

we come across. Subjects are obligatory (with the exception of imperative sentences). Subjects determine the form of the

verb that follows (agreement). In questions, the auxiliary verb precedes the subject. Subjects can be identified through

tag questions --> ES: your sister is really tires, isn’t she? Jill will not leave Rome, will he?

--> is the subject, because:

ES: my brother wears a green overcoat my brother

• it is a NP;

• it is the first NP in the sentence;

• it is obligatory;

• rd

it is a 3 person singular phrase and the verb agrees with it;

wears

• in a question, it swaps places with the auxiliary verb --> does my brother wear a green overcoat?

• in an interrogative tag, we must use the pronoun which refers back to -->

he my brother my brother wears a green

overcoat, doesn’t he? --> the subject is , even though is the first NP in the sentence,

ES: last night, my dogs were really agitated my dogs last night

because the NP is obligatory, while the NP is not --> vs

my dogs last night my dogs were really agitated last night were really

. In an interrogative sentence, it is that swaps places with -->

agitated my dogs were last night, were the dogs agitated?

In an interrogative tag, refer back to -->

they my dogs last night my dog were very agitated, weren’t they?

FIND THE SUBJECT IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES

1. My friend travelled around the world on a bicycle;

2. In the Middle Ages people often burnt books;

3. Yesterday at midnight Harry fell down the stairs;

4. The supporters of the football club down the road destroyed our fence;

5. It was freezing cold in Moscow;

6. There is a rat in the room.

Subjects are usually realized by NPs. However, clauses can also function as Subjects:

• that-clause --> ES: that his theory was flawed soon became obvious (che la sua teoria fosse sbagliata è diventato ovvio molto

. --> ;

presto) This clause has an own subject his theory

• nominal relative clause: --> this clause has an own subject --> ;

What I need is a log holiday I

• to-infinitive clause: ;

to become an opera singer takes years of training

• ing-clause: .

being the chairperson is a huge responsibility

Among nonfinite clauses, only to-infinitive clauses and -ing participle clauses can function as subject. Bare infinitive

clauses and -ed participle clauses cannot perform this function.

• prepositional phrases: less commonly, the subject may be realized by a prepositional phrase ES: After nine is a

good time to ring. Prepositional phrases as subject typically refer to time or to space.

Subjects can also be meaningless elements, in the sense that they do not tell us what the sentence is about and seem to

be there only to fill the subject spot:

• weather it (or nonreferential it, dummy it) --> ; .

ES: it is raining in England it was hot

referential it --> .

ES: Where did I put my hat? You put it in the car

• existential there --> .

ES: There were three children outside school

locative there --> ES: I saw the cat two minutes ago. Ah, there it is!

Imperative sentences don’t have a subject, are apparently subjectless --> .

ES: eat the porridge

From the notional semantic point of view, if we add a tag question at the end of the command, then the tag question

suggests that the subject is you --> ES: eat the porridge, won’t you?

Leggere da moodle il file Phrasal and prepositional verbs

PREDICATE

ES: [my friend] [travelled [around the world]]

subject predicate

Predicate can themselves contain a number of other units, for example subject + predicate (verb + np) or subject +

predicate (verb + pp).

PREDICATOR

Predicators are pivotal elements that specify the main action, event or process denoted by the verb. They say (predicate)

something about something else --> .

ES: [[the cat] [devoured [the fish]] --> subject + predicator + direct object

Concerning the semantic definition, we can say that DOs are constituents that refer to entities that typically undergo the

activity or process denoted by the verb.

--> undergoes a ;

ES: his girlfriend bought this computer this computer buying activity

--> undergoes a ;

ES: that silly boy broke the teapot the teapot breaking activity

--> undergoes a ;

ES: Tom took this photograph this photograph picture-taking activity

--> undergoes a .

ES: My sister found that book that book process of being found

Subject typically play an agent role and objects typically play a patient role.

Concerning the syntactic and structural definition, like subjects, DOs are often NPs and their usual position is after the

lexical verb. DOs have a strong relationship with the verb that precedes them. When we turn an active sentence into a

passive sentence, the DO of an active sentence becomes the Subject of a passive sentence; the subject of the active

sentence ends up in an optional phrase introduced by the word “by”.

DOs have a strong relationship with the verb that precedes them --> the verb “to

ES: our uncle likes; our uncle likes fast cars

like” requires a DO. Verbs which require a DO to complement their meaning are called transitive verbs. Verbs which do

not require a DO to complement their meaning are called intransitive verbs.

In sentences like and , and , there are two different verbs.

Harold moved the table Harold moved Jake walked the dog Jake walked

In sentences like and , and there is an

Taylor was reading a book Taylor was reading Pat was eating a sandwich Pat was eating

implicit DO.

Identify Subject, Predicate and Direct Object of the following sentences, then produce passive sentences where possible:

1. Drinking beer is not permitted --> drinking beer (subject); is not permitted (predicate);

2. Without thinking, the professor stepped off the pavement --> without thinking (non-finite clause), the professor (subject),

stepped off (predicator) stepped off the pavement (predicative) --> stepped off is intransitive, so there is not a direct object.

3. To ensure confidentiality, we will conceal your name and address --> to ensure confidentiality (to infinitive clause), we

(subject), will conceal (predicator), will conceal your name and address (predicate), your name and address (direct object);

REALISATIONS OF THE DIRECT OBJECT

The direct object is most often realized by a noun phrase. However, this function can also be realized by a clause:

• that-clause: --> it’s a transitive verb and the direct object is necessary;

ES: he thought that he had a perfect alibi

• nominal relative clause: ;

ES: the officer described what he saw through the keyhole

• to-infinitive clause: ;

ES: the dog wants to play in the garden

• bare infinitive clause: ;

ES: she made her friend laugh

• -ing clause: ;

ES: Paul loves playing volleyball

• -ed clause: .

ES: I’m having my house painted

VARIATION ACROSS LANGUAGES --> order of subject, object and verb

• English is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO): this is a very common basic word order, as it is found in about 35.5% of the

world’s languages. Other languages with this basic word order include ASL, both Mandarin and Cantonese,

Nahuatl, and most of the Romance languages.

• the most common basic word order in the world is Subject-Object-Verb; this is found in 41% of languages.

Japanese and Korean are both SOV languages, as are Turkish, Farsi, Hindi-Urdu, Malayalam, Amharic, and Haida.

But even though SVO and SOV are the two most common orders, all the other logically possible orders for subjects, objects,

and verbs are also attested in the world’s languages:

• basic Verb-Subject-Object order is found, for example, in Irish and the other Celtic languages, as well as in

Anishinaabemowin and some other Algonquian languages;

• orders where the object comes before the subject (VOS, OVS, OSV) are less common, but nonetheless found in a

few languages.

Even though most languages have a basic word order (the order found in neutral declarative sentences), in many languages

this order is much more flexible than it is in English.

INDIRECT OBJECT

Concerning the semantic definition, the typical role associated with indirect objects is goal/receiver or beneficiary. Verbs

that take a direct object and an indirect object are called ditransitive verbs --> for example, the verb give requires both

the direct and indirect object, in order to complete its meaning.

Syntactic characteristics are:

• indirect objects are usually noun phrases;

• indirect objects cannot occur without a following direct object:

ES: we gave the boys;

ES: the publisher sent her;

ES: she lent the student;

ES: my father always told us.

• indirect objects always precede direct objects:

ES: we gave the boys the CDs --> we can add the “to” to repair the phrase, but it will not be anymore an indirect object, but

a prepositional phrase);

ES: the publisher sent her a review copy of the book;

ES: she lent the student an iPad;

ES: my father always told us stories.

• indirect objects, like direct objects, can become the subject of passive sentences:

ES: the boys were given the CDs by us;

ES: she was sent a review copy of the book by the publisher;

ES: the student was lent an iPad by her;

ES: we were always told stories by our father.

When direct objects become the subject of passive sentences, indirect objects end up in a to-phrase:

ES: the CDs were given to the boys by us;