Appunti di English Language 2

ADVERBS

Adverbs modify always VERBS, ADJECTIVES or other ADVERBS > l’avverbio si usa con aggettivo quando si vuole

intensificare la qualità dell’aggettivo di riferimento

Subclasses of adverbs:

1. CIRCUMSTANTIAL adverbs: heterogeneous category because adverbs can specify a variety of different types

of circumstantial information > informazioni sul MODO in cui si porta avanti un azione

Details on three important areas:

a. Time (I watch television sometimes) > TEMPO

b. Manner (They whispered softly) > MODO > l’avverbio non viaggia da solo ma è dentro un altro sintagma

c. Place (I've left my gloves somewhere) > SPAZIO

QUESTI NON VANNO DA SOLI perché danno maggiori dettagli relativamente all’azione che si sta compiendo,

subordinato al verbo di riferimento

DENTRO AL VERB PHRASE

➔

2. DEGREE adverbs: the degree to which the adjective they modify applies > viene dato il grado di come

l’aggettivo viene modificato. You can intensify or not the adjective, il grado dell’aggettivo

Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely, very, especially, particularly, pretty.

PREMODIFIER DI AGGETTIVO > DENTRO A ADJECTIVE PHRASE

➔

3. SENTENCE adverbs: they differ semantically from those of the previous groups > do not specify verbs,

adjective > related to the whole sentence.

Avverbi che sono legati alla frase, riferimento in relazione a tutta la frase

a. linking function (People tend to put on weight in middle age. However, gaining weight is not inevitable)

b. they modify the whole sentence (Probably, she will not be able to come) > avverbi che non sono linking

verbs o specificatore MA a livello semantico danno un piccolo cambiamento di senso

ADVERBS ARE THE HEADS OF ADVERBIAL PHRASES > testa del suo sintagma

➔

PREPOSITION

The word class of prepositions do not have typical endings like the parts of speech we have already seen. We can only

say that prepositions tend to be very short, often consisting of only two or three letters.

- SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS: at, behind, beside, by, for, in, of, on, through, with, without, under > ONE WORD

- COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS: by means of, in front of, in spite of > TWO OR MORE WORDS

Prepositional phrases often combine with noun phrases and can create different types of relationships:

- SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP: The pen is under the table.

- METAPHORICAL RELATIONSHIP: She is in a big trouble > relazioni metaforiche

CONJUNCTIONS

DO NOT HAVE PHRASES > non sono la testa di niente

Conjunctions belong to a closed class of words that have a linking function. Subclasses:

● COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS and, but, or > metto insieme due o più unità ALLO STESSO LIVELLO

● SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS > costruisce la subordinata

- Cause/effect: for, as, since, therefore, hence, as a result, consequently, though, due to, provided that,

because of, unless, as a result of

- Relationships of time or place: once, while, when, whenever, where, wherever, before, and after

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (coordination is defined as PARATAXIS)

1. Coordinazione coordina 2 adjective phrase

2. Coordianzione coordina 2 verb phrases

3. Coordinazione coordina 2 main clauses

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (subordination is defined as HYPOTAXIS):

● La seconda parte della frase senza la prima parte non sta in piedi

● Scomporre i concetti su più livelli

● Sono subordinate FINITE because there is the agreement between the SUBJECT and the VERB

Subordinata sempre all'interno della main clause stessa. Subordinata al verbo di riferimento che è quello FINITO.

Le subordinate si dividono in finite or non-finite (infinite), but how can I understand when the clause is finite or

non-finite? I have two options:

1. I can identify a NON FINITE VERB > identificare se c’è un verbo all’infinito. In questo caso ho 4 OPZIONI:

to-infinitive; bare infinitive; present participle or a past participle > subordinata non-finite quando ho queste 4

realizzazioni

2. I can identify a FINITE CLAUSE because I can find the AGREEMENT between the subject and the verb. (nelle

frasi sopra, sono tutte finite perchè posso avere un SUBJECT e il VERB che fa l’AGREEMENT con il subject). La

subordinata finita sarà finita solo ed esclusivamente se io ho un VERBO FINITO (il suo agreement con il soggetto

di riferimento e determinazione temporale collegata al soggetto)

INTERJECTIONS

> elementi anche che non sono verbali

DO NOT HAVE PHRASES > non sono la testa di niente

|

Interjections are expressions of emotion, physical state, agreement, disagreement and such like:

Ah, erh, hmm, oh, ouch, phew, shit, yes, yuck > they are not words

They are considered as a separate word class, but they are not really part of the sentence in which they are because

they are literally thrown in. An interjection is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence

- Hey! Get off that floor!

- Oh, that is a surprise.

- Mmmm, my compliments to the chef

10° lezione 27.03.24 CLAUSES AND SENTENCES

Consider the following sentence:

Tim thought that Kate believed the story

Description:

This is a SENTENCE

❖ The sentence contains TWO CLAUSES

❖ A main clause A subordinate clause

➢ ➢

Main clause: it is a superordinate clause that is not itself subordinate to any other clause.

That: it is a complementizer that embeds the subordinate clause in the main clause (in the syntax tree you can write

“conjunction” or “complementiser”)

Graphical representation:

Tutta è main clause con una parte che è nella sub-clause (essa inizia con il complementizer e successivamente al verbo

reggente)

Per esame: Identifica le due o se ci sono delle subclauses e se sono finite o non-finite e dimmi perchè. Risposta: Sono

due subclauses finite perché all'interno ho il soggetto che concorda con il verbo, non ci sono dei non-finite verb.

Main clauses always contain finite verbs, while subordinate clauses can contain both finite or nonfinite verbs.

Subordinate clauses can be

● Finite:

- I do not know [if he is happy or sad].

- Tim thought [that John was in London].

- Susan did not know [whether John would come].

● Nonfinite:

Posso avere subordinate che non sono finite (no agreement soggetto e verbo)

Non finite subordinate clauses > in realtà hanno realizzazioni diverse dove io riesco a raggiungere il soggetto di

riferimento o dove non lo raggiungo Ex > esempi di frasi SUBCLAUSES che sono NON FINITE ma

che hanno realizzazioni diverse secondo le categorie

grammaticali che abbiamo visto

1. Due subordinate non finite che hanno realizzazioni

diverse perché una include il soggetto e l'altra è l’infinitiva per

eccellenza. Nel primo caso c’è il soggetto della non-finite

sentence (Jim to sell his boat) nel secondo caso abbiamo l’

infinitive that we know.

2. The first is a non finite clause in which the subject of the second non finite clause is EXPLICIT. In the second

exemple we have the non finite clause at the beginning

3. In the first non finite but the subject is EXPLICIT (we have streets). In the second we have a non finite clause that

is the subject but the subject is not explicit

4. In the first the subject is explicit and subject of the non finite clause. In the second we haven't the subject in the

non finite clause 5. There are other sub clauses in which there are

COMPLEMENTIZERS > sono introdotte dalla

congiunzione subordinata (es. Whether [se]). In

questo caso NON FINITE perchè c’è il verbo TO

LAUGH

6. Subordinate NON FINITE CLAUSES in which

there is the possibility to not find the verb it self

11° lezione 28.03.24

!!! Remember that every sentence can be analysed at four distinct levels:

word level (grammar category: NOUN, VERB, COMPLEMENTIZER…)

➢ phrase level (units within the sentence NP, VP, ADJ. P, ADV. P.)

➢ clause level (consider the M.C. and eventual SUB. CLAUSES)

➢ sentence level (focus on the fact the the MC is the whole sentence)

➢

Ex. Tim though that Kate believed the story

Elaboration of a method of representing syntactic structures in the form of so-called TREE DIAGRAMS (we can obtain a

much clearer representation).

Ex. Tim thought that Kate believed that Greg is a liar

CLAUSE TYPES

Clauses can be classified according to their syntactic properties:

DECLARATIVE CLAUSES

● > STATEMENTS

L’AFFERMAZIONE > a livello sintattico (dicendo qualcosa che si dichiara), pragmatica (il tono cambia il significato)

○ They display an unmarked order of functional categories. This means that their configuration is the

configuration that you expect: Subject, Predicate, Object (direct indirect or the subclause)

○ They are normally understood to make STATEMENTS (un dato di fatto)

○ They are uttered with NEUTRAL INTONATION (a rising tone could imply a question) > TONO

Ex. My aunt likes adventurous books

You haven’t closed the door

INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE

●

They are normally used to ASK QUESTIONS > usare la domanda per chiedere qualcosa ho tre tipi di strutture diverse:

○ YES/NO INTERROGATIVES

■ Can you see this pen?

■ Will you dance with me?

○ OPEN QUESTIONS / WH-INTERROGATIVES

■ What did you eat yesterday evening?

■ How did you open the door?

■ Why are you drinking milk?

○ ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS > a solution or another

■ Do you want lasagna or spaghetti?

■ Is it red or is it blue?

○ RHETORICAL QUESTIONS in many situations you use interrogative clause but the meaning is not to

ask anything else

■ How many times do I have to tell you not to lick your plate?

■ Can you be quiet?

IMPERATIVE CLAUSES

● > un comando

○ They are normally interpreted as DIRECTIVES > as someone telling someone else to (not) do something

○ Syntactically they do not normally contain SUBJECT

○ The VERB is in the BASE FORM

Ex. Go home!

Mind your own business!

○ Imperative clauses can have DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS > try to be polite, non è un comando

Ex. Take care of yourself!

EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSES

● > forza illocutoria quello che voglio dire o dire il contrario di quello che voglio dire in

un senso ironico

○ They are formed with an initial WH-WORD

○ Wh-word is a MODIFYING ELEMENT within the phrase

Ex. What a load of nonsense he talks!

How absolutely disgraceful he looks!

What an extraordinary lecturer Katy is!

○ They can also be QUESTIONS:

Ex. What an extraordinary lecturer who is?

More on tree diagrams…

LUCKLY, SUE TOLD ME THAT SHE MOVED TO ROME LAST YEAR

Per esame: Indica dove la frase è sintatticamente

ambigua? |

Two things that can be taken in consideration talking

about AMBIGUITY: luckily and last year

- Luckily: it could