Appunti Lingua inglese

They turn a statement into a question, used for checking information that

we think we know is true.

Made using an auxiliary verb and a subject pronoun.

If the main clause is positive, the

question tag is negative and if the

main clause is negative, the question

tag is positive. (es. It’s cold (positive)

isn’t it (negative) or it’s not cold

(negative), is it? (positive).

If the main clause has an auxiliary verb in it, you use the same verb in the

question tag. If there isn’t use do/does did. Exception: the question tag of I am, is

aren’t I?

Negative question tags are usually contracted.

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The passive voice

When we use an active verb, we say what the subject does; when we use the

passive verb, we say what happened to the subject.

The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that

experiences an action rather than the person or object that performs the

action: the most important thing or person becomes the subject of the

sentence.

Sometimes used because we don’t know, or don’t want to express, who

performed the action.

Often used in formal texts (more clear and easy to write).

If we want to say who or what, we

use the passive voice with the

preposition “by”.

Form: putting the verb “to be” in the sentence and then adding the past

participle. Subject + coniugated of “be” +

past participle (not very

common in present and past

perfect continuous).

Passive voice with infinitives: is used after modal verbs and other verbs

normally followed by an infinitive.

Passive voice with gerunds: passive of gerunds (doing, seeing…) is being

done/being seen.

Using “to be born” mostly used in past tense, in some cases it is used in the

present or future.

Sometimes the passive is formed using the verb get, but we use it only when

things happen (es. I don’t get invited to many parties).

Conditionals

Zero conditional: used when the time is present (now) or always and the situation is

real or possible.

Used for general truths. The tense is in

both parts at simple present. If can be

replaced by “when” (separated by

comma).

Used to speak about natural laws or general truths: if + subject + present s

+ present s.

The type 1 conditional is used to express something that will probable

happen in the future. It refers to a possible condition and it’s probable

result. (If clause) is in simple present the

main clause is in simple future (two

clauses separated by comma).

We use 1st conditional to refer to the present or future when the situation is

real: if + subject + present s + future simple (will).

The second type conditional is used to refer a time that is now or any time

and a situation that is unreal (sentences not based on facts). Hypotetical

condition and its probable result.

The “if clause” uses the past simple and the main uses the present

conditional (would + bare infinitive)

2nd conditional = a lot more unlikely.

Form: if + subject + past s +, + would +

bare infinitive (es. If I won the lottery, I would

buy a bigger house).

You can also invert the sentence’s order but don’t put the comma:

You can use “modals” in the main clause

instead of “would” (express degree of certainly

about the result).

The 3rd conditional is used to refer a time that is in the past ad a situation

that is contrary to reality. The facts are the opposite of what is expressed. To

express: unreal past condition and its result.

Form: If + subject + Past perfect simple +, + would + present perfect (ex. If I

had know you were coming, I would have cleaned the house).

You can invert, but you don’t put the comma to separate. You can use

modals (might, could, may…).

If and unless

Means = on condition that, when we’re talking about present situations, we use

unless instead of if not.

Unless simply means except if or if … not/if there isn’t /aren’t.

Unless used with an affermative verb, while if is used with a negative verb.

Linking words

Used to conncet idea and sentences: we can use them to give examples,

sequences of informations, giving reason or result.

- For giving examples: using “for example” or “for instance”. Namely refers to

something by nane;

- Adding information: and, in addition, as well as, also, too, moreover… Ideas

are often linked by “and”. In a list, put the comma between the item, not before

and. Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis, you can use “also” with not

only to give emphasis (don’t use it to begin a phrase: you can use in additional

to). “As well as” can be used in the middle/at the beginning (“too” is used at the

end or after the subject: it means as well – apart from and besides = as well as).

Moreover/futhermore add information to the point you’re making;

- Summarising: in short, in brief, in summary, to summarise, to conclude …

Used at the beginning of the sentence to give a summary;

- Sequencing ideas: the former, the latter, firstly, secondary, finally, lastly, the

following… The former and the latter are used to refer to one of two points

(former = first/latter = last). Firstly, secondly, finally (lastly) useful to list ideas.

The following is a good way so start a list;

- Giving reason: due to/due to the fact that, owing to/to the fact because, as,

since. Due to/owing to must be followed by a noun. If you want to put a clause,

you must follow the words with “the fact that”. Because/because of: followed by

a noun, used at the beginning or in the middle of sentence. Since as = means

because;

- Giving a result: therefore, so, consequently, this means that. Therefore, so,

consequently and as result as used in a similar way. “So” is more informal;

- Contrasting ideas: but, however, although/even though, while, whereas,

unlike, nevertheless. But is more informal than however (used at the beginning).

Although, despite and is spite of introduce an idea of contrast. Despite and in

spite of are the same as “due to” and owing to (must be followed by a noun, if

you want to follow them by verb and noun you must use the fact that).

Nevertheless and nontheless mean in spite of or anyway. While, whereas and

unlike are used to show how two things are different form each other. In theory,

in practice show unexpected result.

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Wish

Wishes about the present and future.

Wish + pst continuous is

used to express that we want

Wish + past simple is used to be doing a different action

to express that we want a in present/future.

situation in the present (or

future) to be different.

Wishes about the past: wish + past perfect used to express regret or that we

want a situation in the past to be different.

Wish + would: wish + would + bare infinitive used to impatience, annoyance

or dissatisfacion with a present action.

Wish and hope: you want something to happen in the future (hope + present

simple is used instead of wish).

Wish = want: wish + infinitive or wish + object + infinitive use to mean want

in a formal situation.

Wish in fixed expressions (es. I wish you an happy b-day).

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CFU 2 – Academic Skills

Are set out to help university students as the general academic scenario is

becoming more and more diverse.

They are:

- Reading;

- Vocabulary;

- Writing;

- Note-taking (for reading);

- Note-taking (lecture);

- Listening.

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Speed reading

Is a combination of techniques that help you read fast. When you read slowly

is because you want to read all the details and take your time to look up in a

dictionary all the new words that you don’t know.

Reading long papers may take a lot of time and you might even find

information that you don’t even use. That’s why you need to speed up

reading.

Everything depends on the purpose: difference between reading for research

and laying down to read your favourite book (called extensive reading).

When you are reading academic text you have in mind:

- Get information (facts, data);

- Understand ideas or theories;

- Understand author point of view;

- Supporting your view by using quotes.

A simple way to start is dividing up the page vertically into three or four

sections, either by drawing lines or folding, and to look only at the middle of

each section. As long as this habit

becomes natural,

you’ll not need to

repeat this procedure.

If you apply this method to a whole page, you’ll get more words but will still

have a good idea of the article, more importantly, if this is the type of

information that you’re looking for.

Once you have identified the ideas, you

Speed reading is formed by: surveying, skimming, scanning/searching.

can read in detail.

Surveying

Means taking a look at a big picture. It’s a word borrowed from engeneering and

construction where an assessment of the land is made.

Applied to reading skills it means

looking at the book or publication as a

whole, checking the author, the date

and place of publication.

It’s very important to investigate the author, for example you should check

his/her background to see if he/she has published other books or papers (affiliated

with institutions, foundations…).

Main filter = specific purpose, because will affect how your read goes.

Important to choose

the right material.

Purpose:

1) Get information: “Do I know enough on the author? Am I missing something?”;

2) Understand ideas or theories: “Is there more to what I know?”;

3) Understand the author’s view point: “Is the point shared by other scholar?”.

4) Support your own views by using citations: having an intuition;

5) Write an assay, give a presentation or partecipate in an academic

discussion: “Who is my audience? What’s my main idea?”.

Different approach to surve a book:

You need to pay attention to main

elements such as the title, the

introduction (for foundamental

content) then attention to the

index.

Surveying a publication:

Abstract and conclusion can give you a

pretty good indication. Then attention

to the section headings and browse

through graphics and diagrams.

When you have compleated these task now you know if the reading is relevant