Appunti lezioni di Lingua inglese

ASPECTS: PERFECTIVE, IMPERFECTIVE, PERFECT

PERFECTIVE (Simple past: D) – refers to an event in the past that can’t be repeated anymore: chronological and psychological distance from the time of speaking (Pastness).

Ex. I saw him at faculty meetings [Lo vidi una volta poi mai più]

IMPERFECTIVE (Be + Ing) – refers to an action that took a certain period of time, focusing on its descriptive process.

Ex. I was preparing a cake (when he arrived) [descrizione del processo di preparazione]

PERFECT (HAVE + EN, HAD + EN, WILL + HAVE + EN) – refers to a certain present/past/future state of things as a result of something that happened before (Anteriority).

Ex. I have finished my homework [Have: in the present, the speaker localizes a past memory]

When he came, I told him that I had finished my homework

Tomorrow at this time I will have finished my homework

ECCEZIONI: I verbi che richiedono breve tempo

The Bomb has been exploding for ten minutes [La bomba sta esplodendo da 10 minuti???]

My dog has been...

dying for two days [Dying è un aggettivo (moribondo)]

PERFECT - HAVE + EN

Can be: Perfect of RESULT – Talk about an action that happened before but has consequences in the present

Ex. He’s gone to the stadium [the result is that he is not there now]

Perfect of EXPERIENCE – The utterer performs a scanning of the past activities

Ex. He’s been to the stadium [the experience is that he went and he came back]

Perfect of PERSISTANCE – Talk about a single accomplished action that can be repeated

Ex. I’ve shopped here for ages

YET: neutral meaning – the action is not accomplished now, but it will

STILL: negative meaning – the action is immobile

SPRESENT SIMPLE - Use:

Perceptions

Unexpected events: rhematic connotation

Performative utterances (when subject to felicity conditions)

Narrate: storytelling, recipes, matches, stage direction (…)

Universal laws

Characterizing a person or a natural phenomenon

Stated

Actions (unchanged for a long time)

• WILL

Can be:

• Epistemic – prediction (often based on a past experience)
• Ex. By looking at these clouds, I can say that tomorrow it will rain [a naturally foreseeable prediction]
• Dynamic – the subject’s willingness to do something
• Ex. I will call you as soon as I get there [speaker’s willingness to do something]

Le domande poste con Will possono essere interpretate come INVITI

• Ex. Will you eat in the canteen tomorrow? [Vieni a mangiare in mensa domani?]

Dynamic & Epistemic: prediction on the willingness to do something

• Ex. I will eat in the canteen tomorrow [prediction and willingness to do something]

BE + ING (in future) Use: Dairy Future: arranged plans and programs

• Ex. I’m playing tennis with George tomorrow. [Mi sono messo d’accordo per giocare a tennis…]

WILL + BE + ING Use: Imagine yourself in a certain situation (thanks to Ing) and Epistemic (thanks to Will):

• prediction
• Ex. I will be eating in

The canteen tomorrow

BE + GOING TO

Use: Intentions: the speaker's intention to see an action performed

Ex. I'm going to eat in the canteen tomorrow [ho intenzione di mangiare alla mensa]

Inevitable events: the action will be performed if no one intervenes

Ex. He's going to kill me!

Unstoppable process: no one can intervene in order to stop the enactment of the dictum

Ex. Look at these clouds, it's going to rain soon

PHONETICS: studies the way speakers produce, transmit, and receive speech sounds. It studies all the sounds that the vocal apparatus can produce

PHONOLOGY: studies the way sounds are stored in our minds and the way they are organized in a language. It studies only the sounds that can create different words in a language.

PHONEMES: the smallest units of sound

PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION: shows how words are pronounced in order to create a correspondence between sounds and letters.

RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION: (South-East of England) standard

language with neutral accents,  traditionally stood out as "prestigious" RHOTIC ACCENTS: accents (Scottish and Irish) that pronounce the /r/ phoneme after vowels  (hard) and in final position (author) NON-RHOTIC ACCENTS: accents that pronounce the /r/ phoneme only in initial position SYLLABIC CONSONANTS: consonants that need a vowel (superscript schwa /ᵊ/) before them.  These consonants are usually /l/, /m/, /n/, /r/. (Ex. Button /ˈbʌt.ᵊn/) SEMI-VOWELS: (/j/, /w/) its position of articulation is not maintained long enough CONSONANTS b back, baby, job voiced bilabial plosive m more, hammer, sum voiced bilabial nasal w wet, one, when, queen voiced bilabial approximant d day, ladder, odd voiced alveolar plosive z zero, music, roses, buzz voiced alveolar fricative n nice, know, funny, sun voiced alveolar nasal l light, valley, feel voiced alveolar lateral g get, giggle, ghost voiced velar plosive ŋ ring, anger, thanks, sung voiced velar nasal ʒ pleasure, vision voiced

1. alveo-palatal fricative: dʒ (judge, age, soldier)
2. voiced alveo-palatal affricate: ð (this, other, smooth)
3. voiced dental fricative: v (view, heavy, move)
4. voiced labiodental fricative: j (yet, use, beauty, few)
5. voiced palatal approximant: r (right, wrong, sorry, arrange)
6. voiced post-alveolar approximant: p (pen, copy, happen)
7. voiceless bilabial plosive: t (tea, tight, button)
8. voiceless alveolar plosives: s (soon, cease, sister)
9. voiceless alveolar fricative: k (key, clock, school)
10. voiceless velar plosive: ʃ (ship, sure, national)
11. voiceless alveo-palatal fricative: tʃ (church, match, nature)
12. voiceless alveo-palatal affricate: θ (thing, author, path)
13. voiceless dental fricative: f (fat, coffee, rough, photo)
14. voiceless labiodental fricative: ʔ (department, football)
15. voiceless glottal plosive: h (hot, whole, ahead)
16. voiceless glottal fricative: h (hot, whole, ahead)

PLACE OF ARTICULATION OF CONSONANTS

• Bilabial: lower and upper lips (obstruction) - p / b , m, w
• Labiodental: lower lip and upper teeth - f / v
• Dental: tongue tip between the teeth or - θ / ð
• Alveolar: tongue tip or blade against the alveolar ridge - t / d, n, s, z, l, r
• Post-alveolar: tongue tip or blade behind the alveolar ridge - ʃ / ʒ, tʃ, dʒ
• Palatal: tongue body against the hard palate - j / r, j
• Velar: back of the tongue against the soft palate - k / g, ŋ
• Glottal: vocal folds - h / ʔ

close to upper teeth θ / ð

Alveolar tongue tip close to alveolar ridge t / d , s / z, n, l

Post-alveolar tongue tip close to the area behind the alveolar ridge r

Palato-alveolar blade of the tongue towards hard palate ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ

Palatal blade of the tongue close to hard palate j

Velar back of the tongue against soft palate k, g, ŋ

Glottal glottis to make friction audible h, ʔ

MANNER OF ARTICULATION OF CONSONANTS :

Plosive the airstream is blocked then released p, b, t, d, k, g

Fricative the airstream passes through a narrow space f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h

Affricate obstruction then a narrowing tʃ, dʒ

Nasal obstruction of the mouth but air passes through the nose m, n, ŋ

Lateral the airstream flows around the sides of the tongue l

Approximant the airstream flows around the tongue with no obstruction r, j, w

Bilabial LabiodentalDental Alveolar PostAlveolaPalatoAlveoPalatal Velar

Glottal /ɪz/ withr lar s, z, ʃ,Plosive p b t d k g ʔ tʃ, dʒ/z/ withFricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h voicedAffricate tʃ dʒ /t/ withNasal m n ŋ f, k, p,Lateral l s, t, ʃ, θApproximant w r j(voiceless)/s/ with f, k, p, t, θ (voiceless) /d/ with voicedQUANDO LA H E MUTA :In alcune posizioni iniziali : Heir [erede], Hour, Honour Prima di X, G, K, R : eXhaust, Ghost, Khaki, Rhythm Tra due vocali : vehicle, vehement… In alcuni suffissi : Shepherd, Durham, Clapham… In alcune forme deboli : him…SILENT LETTERS :Gemination : only the first is pronounces <letter> /ˈlet.ər/ Identical consonants : pronounced as one <pack> /pæk/ H (vedi sopra) B : BT (doubt /daʊt/), BM (plumber /ˈplʌm.ər/) BUT:pronounced when inside a morpheme (number /ˈnʌm.bər/) or as prefix (subtract /səbˈtrækt/)K : KN (knock /nɒk/) BUT: pronounced at morphological boundaries (sickness /ˈsɪk.nəs/)L : when preceded

by a Vowel (half /hɑːf/)
S : SL (island /ˈaɪ.lənd/) and in words of french origin (debris /ˈdeb.riː/)
BUT: muslim /ˈmʊz.lɪm/
T : after some consonants (listen /ˈlɪs.ᵊn/) and in words with french origin (ballet /ˈbæl.eɪ/)
U : GU (fatigue /fəˈtiːɡ/)
BUT: GU in some cases pronounced as /ŋ/ (tongue /tʌŋ/) or /gw/ (language /ˈlæŋ.ɡwɪdʒ/)
W : WR (wrist /rɪst/) TW (two/tuː/)
G : beginning or ending GN (gnome /nəʊm/) or GM (paradigm /ˈpær.ə.daɪm/)
BUT: pronounced between words (signature /ˈsɪɡ.nə.tʃər/) and in NG as /ŋ/ (thing /θɪŋ/)
GH: IGH (sigh /saɪ/) and in some cases after some vowels (thought /θɔːt/)
C : CT (indict /ɪnˈdaɪt/), SC (scene /siːn/, viscount /ˈvaɪkaʊnt/)
BUT: SC can be also pronounced as /ʃ/ (fascist /ˈfæʃ.ɪst/) or /sk/ (sceptic /ˈskep.tɪk/)
N : NM in final position (column /ˈkɒl.əm/)
R : in non-rhotic accents between vowell and consonant

(park/pɑ:k/) and in final position (father /’fa:.ðəʳ/)

F : can be pronounced as /v/ in few words (of /əv/)

STRESS: stressed syllables are louder, longer, and have an higher tone.

Rules for stress:

BYSILLABIC NOUNS and ADJECTIVES: stress on the 1 ̊ syllable (PRIMA)

BYSILLABIC VERBS: stress on the 2 ̊ syllable (SECONDA)

Words that end with -IC, -SION, -TION: stress on the 2 ̊ from last (PENULTIMA)

Words that end with -CY, -TY, -PHY, -GY, -AL: stress on the 3 ̊ from last (TERZULTIMA)

PREFISSI: element placed at the beginnigng of a word in order to modify its meaning

They usually don’t alter the stress and the pronounciation of the word they attach, however they can attract a secondary stress.

<a-> <anti-> <be-> <con-> <de-> <dis-> <ex-> <in-> <non-> <pre-> <pro-><re-> <un-> <semi-> <quasi>

SUFFISSI: element placed at the end of a word in order to modify its

meaningThey can be: STRESS NEUTRAL, STRESS ATTRACTING, PRE STRESSED

1. STRESS NEUTRAL
2. PRE STRESSED
3. STRESS ATTRACTING

(non accentati) (stress su penultima o terzultima) (accentati)ful ic eseish sion penultima teenism tion eerist cy iqueive ty aireise/ize phy terzultima eeless gy selfment al selves

VOWELS

The quality of the sound depends on

1. Position of the tongue front central back
2. Height of the tongue closed semi-closed semi-open open
3. Shape of the lips spread rounded
4. Length of pronounciation long short

__________Positi