Sociology of culture

Three basic methods of doing social research:

1) Observation: should be directed by theory, without it we wouldn’t know what to look for in the social world.

2) Experiment: ex. Natural experiment in which the consequences of something that happens in one setting are observed and compared to the conditions in settings in which the event didn’t occur.

3) Comparison

1. humans and lower animal societies.
2. societies in different parts of the world.
3. different stages of societies over time.

As physics can be divided in statics (branch of physical science that is concerned with the forces that act on bodies at rest under equilibrium conditions) and dynamics (branch of physical science that is concerned with the motion of material objects in relation to the physical factors that affect them such as force, mass, momentum, energy), similarly sociology, according to Comte, can be divided in social statics (branch of sociology that studies society in its equilibrium and order) and social dynamics.

(branch of sociology that studies society in its processes and changes).
EMILE DURKHEIM 1858-1917
Two main ideas: priority of the social over the individual, and that society can be studied scientifically.
Durkheim stresses the social dimension of all human phenomena.

1. The science of sociology treats "social facts" as "things"

Society is a part of nature, and a science of society must be based upon the same logical principles as those which obtain in natural science.
Society is made up of social facts:

1. Can be empirically studied like "things"
2. Social structures, norms and values that are external to the individual
3. Are coercive of the individual
4. Are explained by other social facts

Example: language.

1. It is a thing that must be studied, one cannot philosophize about the logical rules of language.
2. It is external to the individual, individuals use a language, but it is not defined or created by them.
3. It is coercive of the individual: the language

that we use makes some things extremely difficult to say.

D) changes in language can be explained only by other social facts and never by one individual’s intentions. Social fact is experienced as an external constraint rather than an internal drive. It is general throughout the society and is not attached to any individual. Reducing social facts to individuals would be like reduce sociology to psychology.

Material and non-material social facts

1. Material social facts: for example, population size and density. They are directly observable.
2. Non-material social facts: culture.

Durkheim recognizes that non-material social facts are, to a certain extent, found in the minds of individuals but their form and content is determined by the interactions and not by the individuals (“relational realism”). There are 4 types of non-material social facts:

1. morality

Durkheim was driven by the concern about the moral health of modern society. He thought morality was identified with society,

Quindi la società non potrebbe essere immorale, ma potrebbe perdere la sua forza morale se l'interesse collettivo diventasse la somma degli interessi personali. La società ha bisogno di una forte moralità comune. Senza legami morali, l'individuo sarebbe schiavo di passioni sempre più espansive e insaziabili. Se la società non ci limita, diventeremo schiavi della ricerca di sempre di più. L'individuo ha bisogno di moralità e controllo esterno per essere libero. b) coscienza collettiva. La totalità delle credenze e dei sentimenti comuni ai cittadini medi della stessa società forma un sistema determinato che ha una propria vita; è una cosa completamente diversa dalle coscienze particolari, anche se può essere realizzata solo attraverso di esse. Comprendimenti condivisi, norme e credenze. Le società "primitive" avevano una coscienza collettiva più forte. c) rappresentazioni collettive. Modi in cui la società riflette su se stessa, rappresentano credenze, norme e valori collettivi e ci motivano a conformarci a queste richieste collettive. Esempio: simboli religiosi, miti.

popular legends.

d) social currents

Less concrete than other social facts. Sets of meaning that are shared by the members of a collectivity. They cannot be explained in terms of the mind of any given individual. Individuals contribute to social currents, but the latter can only be explained intersubjectively (in terms of the interactions between individuals). The complexity and intensity of the interactions between individuals cause a new level of reality to emerge that cannot be explained in terms of the individuals.

“How can a Durkheimian sociology help us analyse and understand modern international relations?”

“First, as I have indicated, by opening up the scope of the international beyond state interactions alone, by including all the social dynamics that are useful today to a complete knowledge of the international scene renamed “global space”: in short, the international becomes in a healthy way “an ordinary social fact” again. Second, by benefiting

from this new basis, from all the tools of a Durkheimian sociology: concepts of social pathology, anomy, or integration are heuristic and even explanatory in international relations. Used to speaking the language of Weber in this domain, we had until now only envisaged the face of domination without ever considering that of the social fabric, despite its increasingly deterministic role in the international game, as we are witnessing these days!"(Interview by Miriam Périér, CERI Sciences Po, to Professor Betrand Badie, author of Rethinking International Relations)

1. the division of labour in society

   1. A primitive society is characterized by mechanical solidarity (people are all engaged in similar activities and have similar responsibilities). Stronger
   2. A modern society is characterized by organic solidarity (people are held together by the division of labour, forces people to be dependent on each other). According to D. in modern society anomie is due to the "abnormal"

In a "pathological" way, labour is divided so that it leads to isolation rather than interdependence. Various specialized tasks result in no common experience. The 4 dimensions of the collective conscience are: - Volume: the number of people enveloped by the collective conscience. - Intensity: how deeply the individuals feel about it. - Rigidity: how clearly it is defined. - Content: the form that the collective conscience takes in the two types of society. In a society with mechanical solidarity, the collective conscience covers virtually the entire society and all its members. It is believed in with great intensity, it is extremely rigid, and its content is highly religious in character. In a society with organic solidarity, the collective conscience is limited to groups. It is adhered to with much less intensity, it is not very rigid, and its content is the elevation of the importance of the individual to a moral precept. Dynamic density refers to the number of people in a society and the amount of interaction that occurs among them. More.

people → increase in competition for scarce resources, more interactions → more intense struggle for survival among similar components. The rise of the division of labour allows people to complement rather than conflict with one another. In a society with organic solidarity, less competition and more differentiation allow people to cooperate more and be supported by the same resources base → there are more solidarity and more individuality. Mechanical solidarity → repressive law: because people are very similar and believe strongly in a common morality, any offence against their shared value system is likely to be of significance to most individuals, ergo, a wrongdoer is likely to be severely punished. Organic solidarity → restitutive law: weaker common morality, offenses are more likely to be seen as committed against a particular individual instead of the moral system, offenders are asked to make restitution to those who have been harmed by their actions. New form of solidarity that allows

labour becomes inefficient and ineffective. In a normal healthy society, there is a sense of interdependence and closer, less competitive relations. This leads to the development of a new form of law based on restitution. Sociologists can recognize a normal society by finding similar conditions in other societies at similar stages. If a society deviates from what is normally found, it is likely to be considered pathological. The idea that crime is normal is based on the fact that it is found in every society, and it helps societies define and establish their collective conscience. There are also abnormal forms of the division of labour: 1. Anomic division of labour: This occurs when there is a lack of regulation in a society that promotes isolated individuality and refrains from telling people what they should do. In such cases, humans lack sufficient moral restraint. 2. Forced division of labour: Outdated norms and expectations can force individuals, groups, and classes into positions for which they are not suited. 3. Poorly coordinated division of labour: If people's specializations do not result in increased interdependence but instead lead to isolation, the division of labour becomes inefficient and ineffective.

Labour will not result in social solidarity. Modern societies are no longer held together by shared experiences and common beliefs. Instead, they're held together through their very differences, so long as those differences are allowed to develop in a way that promotes interdependence.

Durkheim was interested in explaining differences in suicide rates: why one group had a higher rate of suicide than did another can be explained by social facts. If there is a variation in suicide rates from one group to another or from one time period to another, Durkheim believed that the difference would be the consequence of variations in sociological factors and social currents. Individuals may have reasons for suicide, but those are not the real causes.

The four types:

• Integration: Low Egoistic suicide
• High Altruistic suicide
• Regulation: Low Anomic suicide
• High Fatalistic suicide

Integration: strength of the attachment that we have to society

Regulation: degree of external constraint on people

Egoistic suicide: in societies or groups in which the individual is not well integrated. Altruistic suicide: societies with weak social integration. Anomic suicide: when the regulative powers of society are disrupted. Fatalistic suicide: excessive regulation, oppressive discipline. The elementary forms of religious life. Durkheim believed that social forces were akin to natural forces and always believed that collective ideas shaped social practices as well as vice versa. He was worried he would be seen as too materialistic because he assumed that religious beliefs are dependent upon such concrete social practices as rituals. Theory of religion – the sacred and the profane. Durkheim put forward sociology of religion: attempt to identify the enduring essence of religion through an analysis of its most primitive forms. Theory of knowledge.