Riassunto esame Fonologia Inglese, prof Maggioni, libro consigliato A Handbook Of Present-Day English

A handbook of present-day English

Chapter 1 – Language change and variation in English

Language change, variation and history

All languages are subject to constant processes of change, either suddenly as the introduction of new words, or slowly as the change of pronunciation. All languages are open and dynamic, and adapt to the history and culture of the speech communities in which they are in use. Language change happens through the adoption and diffusion of a certain language form or variant (e.g., a phoneme). All languages show a surprising level of variability concerning phonology, morphology, syntax and vocabulary. Language variability consists in how language varies among its speakers, when speakers use different variants, what the social and linguistic significance of such variation is.

The standard variety is the best language in terms of social prestige, language functions and domains of use. Some languages or varieties are perceived as more prestigious and useful (ex: British English). A prestigious variety allows social mobility and access to prestigious cultural values. Non-standard varieties are regarded as irregular and unsystematic. According to sociolinguistics, the study of the relationship between language and society, all the varieties of language have the same status. However, language varieties suffer from social, ethnic and racial prejudice towards their speakers and their socio-cultural, economic and political status.

Language variability is influenced by social factors, or social variables such as social class, social network, gender, ethnicity, age and context. Languages encode a particular social meaning which is determined by their speakers (speech communities), their functions and domains of use (example: the analysis of the patterning of [r] pronunciation in New York City showed how this phenomenon was influenced by speakers' social class and speech style). Language behaviour is conditioned by language attitude towards a specific language or variety. A positive attitude favours the adoption and diffusion of a variant, and also language change.

Language change and variation don’t take place synchronically, but diachronically, which means through history. There are two approaches to historical language change:

• Comparative linguistics or language reconstruction: based on the concept of 'proto-language' (usually a reconstructed language), and 'language family', divided into sub-families or parent languages (ex: English is a Germanic language, originated from Indo-European);
• Historical linguistics or history of language: study of the changes of a single language over the centuries. It distinguishes between external and internal causes for change. External causes are extralinguistic or social factors (ex: technological innovation, introduction of new concepts and the vocabulary to express them, military conquest, immigration); internal causes are changes leading to balance (ex: spread of regular forms).

The history of language is always selective, traditional history of language have mainly focused on the history of the standard variety. English language has been divided into three main periods: Old English (OE, 700-1150), Middle English (ME, 1150-1500), Modern English (ModEngl, 1500-1900). The analysis of language use in social contexts applied to the history of language is difficult for: the lack of any spoken evidence for the earlier stages of the language, and for the difficulty of interpreting and dating changes in earlier written texts.

Types of language change

Phonological change

Phonological change: mutation within the sound system of a language; can be sporadic and regular. Sporadic change affects the sounds of a limited number of words (ex: loss of in OE spræc -> PDE speak). Regular change implies reorganisation of the phonological inventory of language (ex: split of the nasal phoneme /ŋ/, in OE there was no similar velar nasal phoneme). Further phonological changes concern unconditioned and conditioned change. Unconditioned change: sound change regardless of the phonetic context in which it happens (ex: Great Vowel Shift: reorganisation of the vowel system through a push chain process, happened in the 15th cent.). Conditioned change: phonological change which is conditioned by specific phonetic environment (ex: development of PDE fricative phonemes, in OE only /f, s, θ/ existed).

Morpho-syntactic change

Morpho-syntactic change: change in morpho-phonematic and syntactic systems of a language (ex: levelling of the noun ending system from late OE to early ME -> stone / stones).

Main mechanisms of morpho-syntactic change:

• Analogy: process of modelling language form in relation to an already existing form (ex: stone:stones, rod:x = rods);
• Hypercorrection: speakers' awareness of the social value of the different language varieties within the speech community (ex: umbrellow to avoid American non-standard forms like *fella (fellow));
• Backformation: creation of language form which is not historically documented (ex: to laze from lazy).

Two main syntactic changes are: word order and grammaticalisation. Grammaticalisation: a grammatical function is given to a previously autonomous word (ex: formation of PDE modal/auxiliary verbs -> will, shall, can, etc., functioned in OE as main verbs).

Semantic change

Semantic change: mutation in the meaning of individual lexical items, commonly influenced by external factors (socio-cultural change, scientific innovation and foreign language influence, namely borrowing). There are different kinds of semantic change, two involve change of meaning (a, b) and two affect connotation (c, d):

• Widening: use of a particular item in more than one context (ex: PDE dog originally meant 'a particular powerful breed of dog');
• Narrowing: indicates the opposite process (ex: meat, originally used with the meaning of 'food');
• Pejoration: linked to speakers' social attitude and prejudice (ex: PDE silly derives from ME sely meaning 'happy, innocent');
• Amelioration: change denoting a positive attitude towards a certain word (ex: PDE queen comes from OE cwēn 'woman, wife').

The sociolinguistic status of present-day English

In the 20th cent. the term English indicated the varieties of British English. Since the 1980s a new paradigm of studies and terminology has emerged, focusing on the linguistic variations behind the national boundaries of the language, namely the UK. This new framework of language investigation, the English paradigm, focuses on:

• Geographical location (ex: American English, African English,..);
• Linguistic and ethnic association (ex: Chinese English, Indian English,..);
• Activities such as commerce, education, culture and technology (ex: legal English, standard English,..);
• Combination of location and activity (ex: American legal English,..);
• Fusion of English with other languages.

The major parameters of the pluralisation of English are its geographical spread and the number and diversity of its speakers.

The diaspora of English

The diaspora of English worldwide happened during three main stages.

• First stage: expansion of English within the British isles (Scotland, Wales, Ireland), causing the linguistic, cultural, political and economic subjugation of the Gaelic-speaking populations. The process started with the arrival of Germanic tribes (5th cent.) and continued with the establishment of English colonies in Ireland and the defeat of Wales (Middle Ages); Scotland, where Scots (OE dialect) was spoken, resisted English domination until the Act of Union in 1707. That wasn’t the death of Gaelic and Scots languages, since they’re still spoken as a second language (L2). English imposed its symbolic value of language of social and economic mobility.
• Second stage: discovery of new territories and establishment of British colonies in USA (first diaspora), Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Contact between English and other languages resulted in the development of Pidgin Englishes and Creoles, linguae francae for communication in trading exchanges and between African slaves and British masters. This stage regards the formation of colonial standards, or new Englishes; political independence after IIWW recognised them as autonomous, standardised varieties of English, developing endonormative models.
• Third stage or “second diaspora of English”: diffusion and use as L2 in Africa and Asia, due to American imperialism and globalisation.

The countries and speakers of English

The geographical spread of PDE can be described as three concentric circles:

• Inner circle: English has a multifunctional role and is used as a native language (ENL or L1), it is transmitted through family, media and school (USA, UK, Canada, Australia);
• Outer circle: English is the second language (ESL or L2) or an additional language, it is an intra-national means of communication or the language of government, media, religion and education (India, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria);
• Expanding circle: English is a foreign language (EFL) and has functions in diplomacy, scientific research, business negotiations and international organisations such as the European Union (China, Japan, Israel, Egypt).

This model represents PDE as an international language, henceforth global English.

English as a global language

PDE has acquired the status of global language, since it is a wide-ranging sociolinguistic phenomenon. The world English paradigm, the most relevant one, focuses on the functional aspects of the spread of English, its cross-cultural nature and its changing identity, contributing to rethink English in sociolinguistic and educational contexts. Moreover, English for specific purposes (ESP), a