Lingua e traduzione inglese: Fundamental of Translation and Transcreation

FUNDAMENTALS OF TRANSLATION

Translation is the relationship between the source text and the target needs to be expressed in a manner that is as descriptive and neutral as possible. Although a perfect definition of translation that captures all possible viewpoints like culture, purpose, and genre is not practicable. Thus translation can be understood as the process or the product of transforming a written text or texts from one human language to another which generally requires a significant degree of resemblance or correspondence with respect to the source text.

Iterlinear translation -> linguistic glosses

Translation literal -> birth certificate

Translation free -> poetry

Adaptation -> of novel for TV

Version -> of the passion of Christ

The extent of the correspondence between two texts in two languages can be conceptualized as a continuum of writing activities, where the dividing lines between translation or version, vary according to culture, purpose, genre, and contextual factors.

Interlinear translation are the closest to the source while versions are the farthest from the degree of resemblance. In the middle exist various type of interlingual activity that may or may not include the word 'translation'. - Some cultures are more tolerant of differences between the source and the target texts, thus still allowing the term translation to be used to refer to the relationship between the two. So in other words the range occupied by the concept of translation varies somewhat cross culturally, with some interlingual texts being considered translations in some cultures, but not in others and prefer to call them "adaptations or versions". At times the differences in the degree of resemblance to the source are related to genre and to the purpose or the situational context for the translation. In Western societies translations of legal texts tend to be closer to the source text than business letters or scientific texts, which are in turn closer to the source.

Equivalence is strictly related to the concept of translation. Some textbooks make reference to different types of equivalence: Equivalence of meaning, equivalence of effect or equivalence of function. A translation may have to aim for equivalence at one particular level while sacrificing equivalence at others. In many cases the emphasis tends to be on functional equivalence because if the goal of the source text is to inform the readers, then the translation should also function as an educational text. (But of course it doesn't mean it's less problematic and perfect because we have to consider that a reader can make assumptions about what is reading that can or not match the ones of the writers).

Reading comprehension is a complex process that can rarely be considered equivalent across readers. Even in the best cases, when the readers actually know what the writer thought they knew and basic

Understanding takes place, no two readers experience the same text in the same way. The way readers relate to and read a text is related to their experiences of the world, which are never exactly the same. For translated texts, equivalent readings of a text are even more elusive because the readers visualized by the writer are not the same as those reading the translation. In sum, if perfect equivalence is impossible, then it appears that the translation can only be about some degree of equivalence, some type of resemblance or correspondence.

"By translation we understand the process or the product of transforming written texts from one human language to another that generally requires a necessary degree of resemblance or correspondence with respect to the source text."

TYPES OF TRANSLATION ACTIVITY

Scholars and students of translation have traditionally resorted to a variety of terms to express how different translation types or strategies gravitate more or less toward the source or

DYNAMIC AND FORMAL TRANSLATION: the dynamic one could be a letter from a politician seeking re-election who is trying to reach constituents in various languages; formal like advance directives for medical treatment from a minority patient.

COVERT AND OVERT TRANSLATION: a translation is covert when the target is expected to function in the target culture without any reference to its being a translation. An overt translation is one that is known to be a translation.

COVERT AND OVERT TRANSLATION: the first can be use manuals to be sold throughout the world with a copier machine, the other the translation of a university diploma.

GRAMMAR TRANSLATION: a grammar translation provides a structural translation that renders the structure of the source into the target. It was typically used for learning Latin.

PUELLA AMAT -> THE GIRL LOVES

POPULUM SPECTAMUS -> WE AWAIT THE PEOPLE

INTERLINEAR TRANSLATION: This is a kind of word for word translation sometimes used in linguistics.

whereby the translated forms are written or printed below the relevant words and morphemes in order to facilitate the understanding of the structure of each word. It's often accompanied by a literal gloss because the meaning of interlinear translation can be obscured by the degree of formal equivalence.

The above types of translation activities range on the correspondence continuum while there are others that fall outside the translation range like the gist translation, paraphrase, adaptation etc.

GIS TRANSLATION: is an activity that tries to convey the main idea of the source text in the target language, without concern for preserving form. Gisting comprises an interlingual summary and it is also called summary translation.

Intralingual gis-> minutes of a meeting

Interlingual gis-> a researcher in historical linguistics finds a reference she or he may be interested in

SIGH TRANSLATION: Is an activity that consists of translating written text out loud. Interpreters are often

Given written documents that they have to translate orally into the target language. Ideally these should be short brief documents that are specific to the situation at hand.

PARAPHRASE: is an activity that tries to preserve the content as much as possible but with different form. It's an alternate way of expressing the content of the source. Like when you asked people to repeat what someone else said.

ADAPTATION: it differs from a translation because it may require omissions or additions to serve a specific purpose. Novels that are made into movies are usually screen adaptations.

Intralingual -> Peters Jackson's film trilogy to a novel

Interlingual -> the title of the movie Jaws in French, Les dents de la mer

PSEUDOTRANSLATION: an original text that is mistakenly believed to be a translation, for example Cervantes pretends that Don Quixote is a translation of some manuscripts he found. Or like Tolkien that supposedly translated from his invented Elvish language.

TEXT TYPES AND

GENRES

Just as language is associated with specific purposes and functions, texts are organized around a particular function.

As I said, text types are closely connected to the function of a translation because identifying the text type is crucial to identifying the function of the text.

Text types are usually related to speech acts and the writer's intentions:

• ARGUMENTATIVE (trying to convince the reader of a viewpoint)
• EXPOSITORY (offer information)
• EXPRESSIVE (express feelings)
• INSTRUCTIONAL (make someone react in a certain way).

A text type may have other subtypes within it, generally subordinate to the function of the main type. Textual units contain various types of linguistic marker that help the reader process a text and its elements; similarly, textual units with a specific function or rhetorical purpose have developed conventional patterns of organization, structure and linguistic markers that help readers identify them as a particular text type.

In other words, textual features,

textual analysis can be conducted, it is important to understand the concept of genre. Genres are categories or classifications that are used to group texts based on their characteristics and purpose. They provide a framework for understanding and interpreting texts. Textual markers, on the other hand, are specific linguistic features or elements that indicate the genre or type of a text. These markers can include vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and discourse patterns. They help readers or translators identify the genre and understand the intended meaning and purpose of the text. Textual organization refers to the structure and arrangement of information within a text. Different genres have different organizational patterns. For example, a narrative text may have a chronological structure, while a persuasive text may have a problem-solution structure. Understanding the textual organization is crucial for comprehending the overall message and effectively conveying it in translation. Translators must be aware of the cultural and language-specific features associated with different genres. These features may need to be adapted or modified in translation to ensure that the function, text type, and genre of the source text are preserved. Failure to recognize and address these cultural and linguistic nuances can result in a loss of meaning or misinterpretation in the translated text. In conclusion, understanding textual markers, textual organization, and genre is essential for accurately interpreting and translating texts. It allows translators to effectively convey the intended meaning and purpose of the source text while considering the cultural and linguistic context of the target audience.Adaptation or modification of textual features can take place, we must know what those genre and text-type features are for the source and target texts. Translators must frequently learn how to do their own analysis/descriptions through ST and parallel-text analysis.

Translation or transcreation? A dilemma has emerged during the centuries: is translation primarily a form of transfer or a form of creation? This dilemma dates back to a series of questions about the nature of creativity: what distinguishes an original from a reproduction? What is original in every "translation"? While these questions have been theoretically debated in the past fifty years mainly in the contexts of French and American deconstruction, contemporary communication practices bring them back on the table with urgency. A debate has emerged around translation and transcreation, mostly in terms of differences between the two practices and issues such as creativity. The future of translation as a

profession–as we once knew it–seems to be under pressure. According to a survey, a number of issues related to modern-day technology are questioning the translator’s status. The first one is linked to the fact that we can “go online” easily and cheaply; this easy and cheap access to the Internet across the planet has brought about a global competition resulting in “downward pressure on prices” of translation and translation related services. Another major threat stems from the dramatic increase in high quality machine translation that–despite the often inaccurate language and content outcome–meet the needs of a less demanding reader of a wide variety of text types. Unsurprisingly, literary translation, seems to be noticeably unaffected by the technological peril because–as the Economist journalist observes–“nobody thinks a novel can be translated by a machine”. This is because translation software cannot compete

importanza della creatività nella traduzione umana. La transcreazione è strettamente legata alla creatività e recenti pubblicazioni hanno ruotato attorno a questo argomento.