Lingua e traduzione inglese 1

HISTORY OF ENGLISH

English is a West Germanic language that originated from Anglo-Frisian languages brought to Britain in the mid 5th to 7th centuries by Anglo-Saxon migrants from what is now northwest Germany, southern Denmark and the Netherlands. The Anglo-Saxons settled in the British Isles from the mid-5th century and came to dominate the southern Great Britain. Their language originated as a group of Anglo-Frisian languages which were spoken by the settlers in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages, displacing the Celtic languages (and, possibly, British Latin) that had previously been dominant.

Old English

Old English reflected the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms established in different parts of Britain. The Late West Saxon dialect eventually became dominant. The biggest difference is the case system, that were inflections added to the end of nouns to indicate their function in the sentences. Old English had gender for nouns and number was marked.

tooPhonetically speaking, it had phonemes that modern English hasn't, the letter 'bp' 'ae' and 'a-'. Middle English In the middle english period most of the cases was lost in favour of a morexed word order for several reasons: The influence of norman French and Orleans French brought a class speaking a non case language. Even danish influence, thanks to viking invasions, with the speakers of old Englishes, produced a contact situation that leads to similarity in word roots. Standard plurals was being used in preference of -en, and weak past in ections were more productive than strong forms. Modern English By the time of introduction of printing presses, middle English relied more on syntactic word order than in ection. Language had a pronunciation change: this was known as the great vowel shift and was generally characterized by the raising of most vowel sounds name-neim. Rhoticity was gradually lost from Old English, which modern exceptions only in Southwest and.

Northwest England. The common rhoticity in most American accents is due to the fact that settlers left England largely from rhotic areas and at a time that preceded the general loss of British rhoticity.

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SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Sociolinguistics can be defined as investigating the interplay between language and society. One of the crucial areas which sociolinguistics focuses upon is how we vary our language used in different social contexts. Different levels of formality will affect the speech style we choose to adopt and affect the perception of social status and power between speakers.

Another area of interest for sociolinguists is the study of language changes over time. Sociolinguists examine regional variation, cataloguing differences between speakers in specific areas. For instance, older speakers from rural locations who have never left the area of their birth are perceived to speak a form of pure dialect. The principal aim of this research was to record variations.

that dictionaries and grammar of original varieties could be published.

Key terms

A distinction is made between the terms accent and dialect, accent refers to pronunciation, dialect refers to lexis and grammar as well as pronunciation.

There are the categories of stereotypes, markers, and indicators, coined by William Labov.

Stereotypes refers to obvious features of language usage, such as the use of "chuck" as a term of endearment in Lancashire, or "queen" fulfilling the same functions in Liverpool.

The term marker refers to a feature where there is still some conscious awareness of variation by language users, but far less so than with stereotypes. Markers are important because they are featured with clear social significance, firmly associated with particular social groups and speech styles. Rhoticity is a good example of a marker of the social status of the speaker.

Indicator refers to features which are below the level of consciousness and can only be spotted by trained sociolinguists.

There is no social

encoding associated with these variants, so whilst di erentgroups may use indicators di erently, such forms are not associated withany social indexing.

Communities, networks and practicesSociolinguists argue that a group of individuals cannot be de ned as aspeech community simply by virtue of the fact that they speak the samelanguage. It's important for analytical sociolinguistic categories to be de nedon something other than linguistic criteria in order to avoid circularity.Circularity in semantics is an issue that occurs when trying to de ne a word.In order to understand a de nition of a word or term, you must understandall of the words in the de nition and you must understand all of the words intheir de nitions.ff ff fi fi fi fi fi fi fi ff ff ff ff fi fi fi ff fi

Labov discovered that a set of shared norms existed between speakers,which helped him de ne new york as a speech community.The speech community can be seen as a rather abstract concept. Speakerscan be geographically

Australia, and New Zealand, where English is the first language and has the highest prestige. The outer circle includes countries like India, Nigeria, and Singapore, where English is an official language and is used for government, education, and business purposes. The expanding circle consists of countries like China, Japan, and Brazil, where English is taught as a foreign language and is used for international communication. Each circle has its own linguistic features and variations, influenced by the local languages and cultures. This model recognizes the diversity and complexity of English as a global language. LANGUAGE CONTACT AND CHANGE Language contact occurs when speakers of different languages come into contact and interact with each other. This contact can lead to language change, as speakers borrow words, phrases, and grammatical structures from other languages. One example of language contact is the influence of French on English after the Norman Conquest in 1066. Many French words and expressions were adopted into English, resulting in a significant change in vocabulary. Another example is the influence of Spanish on English in regions where there is a large Spanish-speaking population. English speakers may adopt Spanish words and pronunciations, creating a unique linguistic blend. Language change can also occur through pidgin and creole languages. Pidgin languages develop as a simplified form of communication between speakers of different languages, while creole languages emerge as fully developed languages with their own grammar and vocabulary. Overall, language contact and change are natural processes that reflect the dynamic nature of language and its interaction with different cultures and communities.

New Zealand, and Australia, where the English language has its linguistic basis. It closely corresponds to ENL: English as a native language. The outer circle refers to contexts where English has become an official language due to colonialism, for example Nigeria, Singapore, Malaysia and India. It corresponds to ESL: English as a second language. The expanding circle refers to situations where English is used as a foreign language, like China and Japan. It is commonly referred to as EFL: English as a foreign language.

English as lingua franca

EFL

One important area of study for word English is how English operates as a lingua franca or as a common language. Speakers from any of the three circles can engage in ELF communication. For example, South Africa has 11 official languages but English operates as the country's lingua franca, functioning as the language of business, government, and the mass media.

Standardisation of world Englishes

Increases in the usage of English as a lingua franca within Europe

will lead to standardisation. For a variety of any language to become standardised, it needs to be codified. Once a variety of language has been codified, norms of usage become established from the sources of authority and a standard language can be formally taught. In order for word English is to ever be recognized, varieties needs to undergo some process of codification, that is the most powerful mechanism to enhance the status and prestige of world Englishes varieties. Once a standard variety develops, it gains prestige at the expense of all other varieties, which will become stigmatised variants in comparison. It has the most social, political and economic power attached to it. Despite the advantages of codifying a particular variety, it is important to bear in mind that fixing a language goes against its natural evolution. The first world English dictionary was published at the beginning of the 19th century in the United States, the fully edged qualification examples of national.

Dictionary are from the most established Inner Circle countries.

GLOBISH

Nerriere developed globish is a form of simplified 'global English'. It was developed to help learners of English as a second language, and contains 1500 common words and phrases.

Globish contains words that are common, necessary, and in particular useful for business-speak and business negotiations.

It is composed by standard English grammar with no jokes and idioms, Nerriere says that is is correct English without English culture.

Goblish is really good for second language English speakers because they are already aware that there are certain gaps in communication.

A person has to learn how to cut down the code, and if a person's natural language is English that doesn't come easy.

ESP AND EAP

Regardless of the language a person is studying, university assignments require a certain style and register of language that is different from others.

Eap describes the type of academic language that Englishnk

speakingstudents will be required if they wish to write in an appropriate style.

The number of people studying English are 1.5 billion, but the amount odstudents who are required to use eap is lower.

Eap is intended to be as precise, unambiguous and concise as possible, so that important information can be transmitted from the writer or speaker to their audience with as little opportunity for misinterpretation as possible.

ESPEsp is a subset of English as a second language, it refers to teaching English to university students or employed people, with reference to the particular vocabulary and skills they need.

As an instance, there is English for agricultural science that is required in agricultural organisationsfi fi fi fl fi fi ff

ENGLISH VARIETIESThere are many varieties of English spoken in the world. The oldest variety of English is British English, spoken in the United KingdomEnglish is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisiandialects brought to Britain by Germanic

Settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. The variety of English with the largest number of native speakers is American English, with 225 million native speakers. It is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States and widely adopted in Canada. The other major varieties of English are Canadian English. The first large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States – as such, New York, New Jersey. Australian English began to diverge from British English after the founding of the Colony of New South Wales in 1788 and was r.