Historical Linguistics Compounds

Types of Compounds in English

In English, compounds can be classified into different categories based on their structure and meaning.

Endocentric Compounds: These compounds have a head noun that determines the overall meaning of the compound. The head noun is usually the second constituent in the compound. Examples include "blackboard" and "sunflower".

Exocentric Compounds: These compounds do not have a head noun and their meaning cannot be determined by any single constituent. Examples include "pickpocket" and "killjoy". Exocentric compounds are not very common in English and are mostly remnants of French influence.

Attributive Compounds: This is the most productive type of compound in English. Most attributive compounds are noun-noun (NN) compounds, such as "high school" and "immigration candidate". However, there are also adjective-noun (AN), noun-adjective (NA), and adjective-adjective (AA) compounds, such as "hard hat", "ice cold", and "wide awake". Some attributive compounds, like "hard hat", can have both endocentric and exocentric meanings.

Coordinate Compounds: Coordinate compounds are formed by combining two nouns, adjectives, or verbs of equal importance. Examples include "producer-director", "deaf mute", and "stir fry". Exocentric coordinate compounds are quite productive, especially when the nouns or adjectives involved are semantically similar.

interpretation can be of relationship, collective or disjunctive.

the process of forming a new word (a neologism) by removing actual or supposed affixes from another word

Marginal types:

• Phrasal compounds: the first element is a phrase (or a sentence) and the second is a noun (e.g. God-is-dead theology, over-the-fence gossip). Their classification as compounds is controversial: Lieber argues that they are compounds because the 1 constituent cannot be separated from the 2, but Bresnan and Mchombo say that they are not compounds because the element is lexicalized or 'quotative'. In BS classification they are considered endocentric attributive.
• Neoclassical compounds: formed on Greek and Latin bound roots. Bauer argues that it is difficult to identify them as a distinct type, since sometimes they are not distinguishable from prefixation (e.g. geo-morphology) and because they are formed consciously (while the process of word formation is considered productive if it is unconscious).

Identical constituent compounds: a phenomenon of colloquial, spoken English (FRIENDstfriend, NERVOUS nervous), it shows stress on the 1 constituent. They should be considered compounds because this phenomenon is restricted to words or idiomatic/lexicalized phrases, and it affects only lexical categories (and not functional). They are unlexicalizable.

Dummy compounds: also unlexicalizable. They contain a semantically empty dummy-constituent (thing, business) in head position, and an element from the context the compound refers to in 'free' position. "That Enron thing" refers to something speakers and hearers are familiar with. They are not a distinct type of compounds, but are probably the logical limit of attributive compounding.

Compound vs prefixation/conversion: in words like overcoat, overfly the prepositional constituent can be analysed as a prefix, rather than as an independent stem. But these constituents are different from their prepositional counterparts.

In their semantics (often adding a meaning of excess) and sometimes they change the argument structure of the head they attach to. Words like rip off, put down are not right-headed (which is the general rule for Eng compounds), although the two elements are independent and inseparable and display lefthand stress patterns like all the Eng compounds. They should probably be analysed as the result of verb to noun conversion.

Compounds in Latin:

• Productivity is limited to certain morphological types, due to the length of Latin words (short) and the productivity of juxtaposition (prefixation and agglutination)
• They tend to be long
• Some compounds were not perceived as such (hospes, bimus)
• Often created in poetical language
• Some are the result of Greek influence (alti-thron-us)

Juxtaposition:

1. Amredita (identidem)
2. Avyayibhava (quod-semel-arrip-ides)
3. Case + noun (agri-cultura)
4. Dvandva (dulc-amarus)
5. Numeral juxtaposition (duo-decim)

Compounds:

1. Endocentric
• Dvigu (trivium) 15

Determinative compounds (hospes)- Compounds of verbal government (agri-cola, auri-fex)

Exocentric- Ableitungskomposita (DERIVATION) (meri-dianus, extra-ordin-arius)- Bahuvrihi (bi-pes, magn-animus)

Difference: in juxtaposition the two members are independent words (agricoltura, coltura is genitive), while in compounding is the opposite (agricola, cola does not exist as a word) ‘taking’, ‘doing, making’)

Root compounds: for-ceps, prin-ceps (-ceps, iu-dex, ponti-fex (-ficus,

Radical names are better preserved in compounds than isolated! They can have the function of both agent and action noun.

Radical compounds, from the structural point of view, belong to the category of verbal government (SYNTHETIC), because the 2 member does not appear as an independent word but as a verbal → ‘qui partem capit’. Very old type of compound! parti-ceps

Different from compounds containing a radical name, which exist independently!

Bi-pesFrom a semantic point of view they cover the semantic field of religion (pontifex), law (iudex) andinstitution (princeps).Linking vowels:‘i’- Short which extends to abbreviated stems (agricola)‘i’ that spreads out (in the stems in- Short -i- and in the Caland suffix)stIn Latin compounds, the 1 term can have different cases; they stand between full compounds andjuxtapositions, with which they synchronically merge. They are ancient and not very frequent(deoamabilis).Examining structure and type of compounds we can conclude that:

• The lexical category of the compound is always the same as that of the 2 member
• The second member is preponderant in the semantic value of the compound (almost always “A is specified by B”)
• The first element is usually a specifier of the second element

Types of juxtaposition:

1. There is a relationship of determination between the members (name + definite adjective, pater familias, res publica)
2. Adverb of manner + past

participle of a verb (bene factum, bene dictum) - First member is selected by the syntactic requirement of the second (verisimilis, genitive ver-i is required by the adjective)

From juxtaposition to compounds: there are written testimonies of the development of aquae-ductus into aquiductus. In Italian and Romance languages juxtaposed words develop into fully-lexicalized compounds (aqueduct acquedotto).

This transformation is favoured by the derivational suffix (ITA from doppio gioco to doppiogiochista).

Univerbation is a spontaneous process that does not involve word-formation in a syntactic way. It is different from the conversion of a syntactic construction into a word (compounding).

Synthetic compounds: their formation consists of a morphological process involving derivation and composition.

Agricola > 2 member is derived from the verb colere (cole + a = cola)

Typological classification:

1. N + verbal derivative form with an agentive suffix (caelicola, -a- is the suffix); the

The meaning of these compounds is that of an agent noun;

N + verbal member with suffix -io- (armilustrium)

A + N + -io- (2nd nominal member)(aequi-noct-ium)

Possessive compounds, in which the 2nd member of nominal origin turns into an adjective;

the two members constitute the object of possession (albi-capillus capillus has been transformed into an adjective by means of a invisible suffix, responsible for the change of lexical category)

Determinative compounds, in which the 2nd member determines the first; they consist of two themes (nominal or adjectival) and do not have suffixes (capri-ficus)

Types of compounds according to the STRUCTURE

'bearing the act' with qualitative/predicative relation, or

Determinatives (karmadharaya,'of him the man' with government relation)

tatpurusa, hand-bag'having a lot of rice')

Possessives (bahuvrihi, skinhead 17'two-two,

Copulatives (dvandva, or root compounds, amredita) Emilia-Romagna

Synthetic

Compounds (usually treated as special cases)

Types of compounds according to the HEAD'S PoS:

• Nominal compounds (is a noun, but does not necessarily have a noun as a constituent)
• Adjectival compounds
• Verbal compounds (contains a verb as a constituent, but is not necessarily a noun)

Types of compounds according to FUNCTIONS and MEANING:

• Nomina substantiae (B consists of A)
• Nomina afficientia (B happens because of A)
• Nomina resultative (B causes A)
• Nomina modalia (A determines the characteristics of B)
• Nomina directionalia (B happens in direction to A, and viceversa)
• Nomina temporis (A happens in -time- B, B happens in -place- A, A lasts -xtime- B)
• Nomina finalia (B takes place for the purpose of A)
• Nomina causalia (B takes place because of A, B induced by A)
• Nomina conditionalia (A for the occasion of B)
• Nomina agentis (B does A)
• Nomina patientis (B is the purpose of A)
• Nomina instrumenti (B achieved by A)
• Nomina loci (B takes place in A)

Governing vs non-governing

compounds:

• Governing contain a constituents which induces the grammatical analysis and semantic interpretation of the compound due to its own sub-categorization qualities:
  • C. of prepositional government (nominalize an underlying free syntagm consisting of a P + N, and the P governs the N, extra ordi-nem)
  • C of verbal government (nominalize an underlying free syntagm consisting of a predicate + depending noun, auri-fex, pick-pocket)
• Non-governing do not dispose of any grammatically derivable argument structure; the interpretations are largely open and are determined by pragmatic factors (traffic light, nailfile, nightclub, bedroom)

Compounds in Anatolian (Hittite)

Classification according to the relation between the members:

• Tatpurusa (annaneka-, 'greatness of heart')
• Karmadharaya (sallakarta-, sallai- + ker'grandfather and mother')
• Dvandva (huhha(-)hannis,'day by day')
• Amredita (amati amati,- Dvigu 'courageous, 'sister from the same mother')

arrogance’)- Bahuvrihi (sallakarta-,- Éntheos compoundsCompound-like structures:–- Hypostasis lexicalisation of free syntactical entities or phrases to one word. They are(‘that which isexocentric and become adjectives, named according to éntheos compoundsin God’) – ‘great among the gods’ (comparable to the “habend-“- Relative clauses sallayas=kanconstructions, mostly bahuvrihi, as “modification-relation”)- Univerbations- Hybrid phrases***Hittite has a way of rendering the distributive function of a subject on the object through‘each’) andnumerals (1-as-1-as, total r