Britain in Close-up

THE FORCES OF LAW AND ORDER

The legal system of England and Wales

The main vice of law system lies in its resistance to reform and to the maintenance of its own privileges which may be contrary to public interest. The legal system is founded upon the Acts of Parliament (statute law) and common law which is the outcome of past decisions and practices based upon custom and reason. In 1997 Britain took steps to incorporate the European Convention of Human Rights into domestic law.

Dealing with crime

There are 2 main types of Court for criminal cases: Magistrates' Court (court of first instance) and Crown Courts (for more serious offences). Magistrates' Courts are served by Justices of the Peace (JPs) that are ordinary citizens chosen from the community (their composition reflects the community they serve). A Crown Court is presided over by a judge but the verdict is reached by a jury. The judge must make sure that the trial is properly conducted. The person charged with an offence is

presumed to be innocent. A person convicted in a Magistrates' Court may appeal against its decision to the Crown Court. If unsuccessful, the appeal may be taken to the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) but seldom obtains a reversal. The highest court in the land is the House of Lords.

The treatment of offenders: Punishment may take the form of a fine, imprisonment or probation under the supervision of a professional probation officer. The death penalty was abolished in 1969 except for treason. The wrongful conviction of innocent people discredits the finality of hanging. Imprisonment is used significantly more in Britain than elsewhere in Europe. Labour and the Liberal Democrats tend to view criminality as the consequence of social conditions rather than intrinsic individual moral wickedness. They blame it on social failure: poverty, poor housing, unemployment and educational failure leading to greatly diminished prospects in life. During the 1980s there were repeated disorders in

prisons: prisoners rioted over the serious level of overcrowding and the decaying and primitive conditions of many prisons. An unhappy aspect of the system is the imprisonment of those "on remand", that is awaiting trial. The suicide among those, especially young people, is higher than among convicted prisoners.

Youth offenders

The age of criminal responsibility is 10. Children between the age of 10 and 17 usually appear before a Juvenile Court, where it is decided whether the child should continue to live within the family, subject to supervision or whether he should be taken into local authority care (with foster parents or in a community home). Such offenders normally attend special schools. Some are required to attend special centres on Saturdays, for leisure activities and skills training. Some are required to do community service. The peak age for committing crime is 15. One in four criminal offences is committed by teenagers under 16. By that age crime is already a lifestyle.

For many. For a first offence a person could be given a warning, and for a further offence they could be given a sentence. It was decided to make youth offenders meet and apologise to their victims, in the belief that when confronted with the pain and suffering they had inflicted many would not offend again.

The legal profession and the courts

The legal profession is divided into 2 distinct practices: only solicitors may deal directly with the public, and only barristers (professional advocates) may fight a case in the higher courts (Crown Courts and the High Court). In order to become a barrister, a candidate must obtain entrance to one of the four Inns of Court (law colleges which date from the Middle Ages), complete the legal training and pass the Bar examination. A newly qualified barrister enters the "chambers" of an established one, and slowly builds up experience and a reputation as an effective advocate in the higher courts. There is no judicial profession in England.

All judges are appointed by the Lord Chancellor from among experienced barristers.

England has fewer professional judges than most countries. Britain became progressively more litigious during the 1980s, with the explosive growth of court cases to settle disputes in the workplace, health service and schools.

The way in which judges are selected remains a matter of controversy, they tend to be detached from the broad sweep of society, almost entirely white, male, privately educated and belonging to the professional middle class.

The police

In the 1980s there were scandals involving the police, concerned the excessive use of violence to maintain public order, violence in the questioning of suspects (particularly in connection with Northern Ireland), the fabrication of evidence and the extortion of forced confessions and corrupt practices, for example the falsification of records concerning the successful solution to crimes.

Until the 1960s, the British police force was a source of pride, police

officer enjoyed a trusted, respected and friendly relationship with the public. Almost alone in the police world, the British bobby was unarmed. Although a Police Complaints Authority now exists, it does not command great confidence. Until 1984 no British citizen had any formal protection against police intimidation except customary ones, the right to silence was removed in Northern Ireland in 1988 and in Britain in 1993. In an age of increasing popular violence and disrespect for law and order, the great challenge for the police is to recapture the respect of the public.

Chapter 5

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

A changing system

Local government in Britain is complex, inconsistent and in a long phase of restructuring. The issues lie behind recent changes: the search for improved efficiency and the ideological conflict between those who believe local government is a vital component of democracy (Left) and those who argue that people are more interested in efficient service than local democracy (Right).

Although the county system of local administration dates back 1,000 years to Saxon times, the first systematic framework of local councils was established in the late nineteenth century. A three tier system was introduced, consisting of county, borough or district and parish councils. It was only in the 1960s and 1970s that major restructuring of the system took place, the result of major changes in population size and distribution and of the growth of conurbations.

London was the first city anywhere to establish a complex civic administration to coordinate modern urban services: transport, housing, clean water and sewage systems, education.

By the early 1990s England (with the exception of Greater London) and Wales were divided into 53 counties, within which there were approximately 370 districts.

County, district and borough councils provide the range of services necessary for everyday life. The county councils look after planning, transport, highways, traffic regulation, health, education and fire services.

District councils are responsible for local taxation, leisure and recreation, environmental health, housing and refuse collection. The borough councils in London are responsible for most of the services provided by county and district councils. Each county or borough department negotiates with the appropriate central government ministry concerning its affairs: the introduction of local regulations ("bylaws") may only be done with government approval. There is no standard system since in each county the local authorities have the freedom to organise and administer services as they think will best suit the area.

Each authority is composed of elected councillors (unpaid), who form the governing body, and permanent local government officers, the local equivalent of the civil service.

Each council elects a chairman, or in boroughs a "mayor" (and in Scotland a "provost"). Councillors are elected for 4 years in England and Wales and 3 years in Scotland.

Central

Government is expected to ensure the funds necessary to provide adequate services, and to offset the differences in wealth and service requirements between different areas.

The tension between central government and local democracy

There has always been a tension between local and central government, between civic freedoms expressed locally and intervention by central government. From the late decades national political parties began to sponsor candidates in local elections. National parties all use local government as a "nursery" for those ambitious to enter Parliament. The tendency to vote for a party rather than an individual undermines the chief advantage of a localised political process. People also often use local elections as a way of protesting against the government of the day. Public is not interested in local democracy but in the delivery of efficient and low-cost services.

Chapter 6

WORKING BRITAIN

The economic problems thBritain was the first country both to industrialise

and to develop a capitalist economy. Early in the 20th century it was overtaken by the U.S. and Germany. After two world wars and the rapid loss of its empire, it was unable even to maintain its position in Europe. After 1945 it tried to find a balance between government intervention in the economy and an almost completely free-market economy. The former seemed compromised between 2 different objectives: planned economic prosperity and the means of ensuring full employment, while the latter promised greater economic prosperity at the cost of poverty and unemployment for the less able in society.

From 1979 to 1997 the Conservatives dismantled the corporatist state, removed the regulations and controls from finance and industry, lowered taxes as an incentive to individuals and businesses to increase productivity, left the labour force to regulate itself either by pricing itself out of employment or by working within the amount of money employers could afford, abolished exchange controls and

Limited government spending levels (free-market economy) and use money supply as a way of controlling inflation ("monetarism"). Monetarism's damage had been considerable: unemployment increased and lots of workers aged 55-64 lost their jobs prematurely.

The only real bonus Britain enjoyed was the oil resources discovered mainly in the North Sea in the 1960s. Much of the oil revenue was spent on social security for those unemployed. The banks were in bad debts in the 1980s.

The Conservatives' greatest transformation was the privatisation of wholly or partly government-owned enterprises. They reduced the size of the state-owned sector privatising approximately major business by 1996. Privatisation forced prices down and forced standards of service up to the benefit of customers and shareholders.

Britain became a world leader in the production of microprocessors. High-tech industries have developed in 3 main areas, west of London, the lowlands between Edinburgh and Dundee.

t common types of owners and managers in the music industry include record label executives, music producers, artist managers, and venue owners. These individuals play a crucial role in the success of the industry by overseeing the production, promotion, and distribution of music. Record label executives are responsible for signing and managing artists, as well as overseeing the production and release of music. They work closely with artists and their teams to ensure that the music meets the label's standards and is marketed effectively. Music producers are responsible for the technical and creative aspects of music production. They work closely with artists to help them achieve their desired sound and vision for their music. Producers often have a strong understanding of music theory and are skilled in using recording equipment and software. Artist managers are responsible for overseeing the career of an artist. They handle the business side of the music industry, including negotiating contracts, booking shows and tours, and managing the artist's finances. Managers often work closely with record label executives and other industry professionals to help their artists succeed. Venue owners play a crucial role in the live music industry. They provide spaces for artists to perform and audiences to enjoy live music. Venue owners are responsible for booking artists, promoting shows, and ensuring that the venue is well-maintained and equipped for live performances. Overall, owners and managers in the music industry play a vital role in supporting and promoting artists and their music. They help to shape the industry and contribute to its growth and success.