Riassunto esame International law, Prof. Tanzi Attila, libro consigliato The consolidation of International water law , Tanzi

THE CONSOLIDATION OF INTERNATIONAL WATER LAW

Attila Tanzi

ATC Pagina 1 di 13

CHAPTER 1

International water law has, with time, limited its absolute sovereignty claims over transboundary waters. The claims represented the absolute territorial sovereignty theory, Harmon theory or absolute territorial integrity theory. These are different theories that have the same results when applied in different states. Riparian states claimed absolute freedom to utilize transboundary waters regardless of the impact on downstream States that believe in their right to have unaffected water. Absolute claims lead to unjust results, are anarchic and obstructive theories. Therefore, many of the states that invoked absolute sovereignty arguments, later abandoned such arguments. An example is the Rio Grande dispute (USA v. Mexico 1895) where the US invoked the Harmon doctrine while Mexico invoked the absolute territorial integrity. The dispute settled in 1906 with a treaty recognizing respective rights over the Rio Grande.

La principale idea è che l'uso collettivo e coordinato e la gestione dei corsi d'acqua transfrontalieri sono la chiave per la loro utilizzazione ottimale (comunità di interessi fondamento dei principi fondamentali del diritto internazionale dell'acqua). → Uno Stato ha un potere duale sul suo territorio: il dovere di esercitare l'autorità sul suo territorio e il dovere di rispettare la sovranità degli altri Stati (sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas). Questo è ovviamente collegato al principio dell'uguaglianza sovrana degli Stati. Nella sua storica decisione nel caso del fiume Oder, la Corte permanente di giustizia ha affermato che c'è uguaglianza tra gli Stati ripariani nell'uso dell'intero corso del fiume (anche se non c'è preferenza). Nel caso Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros, la Corte internazionale di giustizia ha affermato che il principio della comunità di interessi nei fiumi navigabili si è esteso anche ai fiumi non navigabili, il che significa che l'uso collettivo e coordinato dei corsi d'acqua è possibile non solo nei corsi d'acqua navigabili (evidente dalla

Adoption of the Convention of '97 on the law of non-navigational uses of international watercourses by the general assembly).

In the 1957 Lake Lanoux case (France v. Spain) the arbitral tribunal stated that according to the rules of good faith, the upstream states have to considerate also the other interests involved.

So, in a few words, international water law principles are based on good faith, sovereign equality, non-abuse of rights and good neighbourliness. On this basis develop the three main principles of the international water law:

1. Each state's duty not to cause harm to other riparian states.
2. Each state right to make reasonable and equitable utilization of transboundary waters.
3. General obligation of cooperation.

Combining the original economic rationale of the international law process with environmental concerns:

International water law has for a long time considered only the quantity of water for the economic concern, without considering the quality of the water.

using it as a "sink into which to dump wastes", that is very important too for the economic concern. Moreover, the use of watercourses could affect natural elements such as soil degradation, desertification, deforestation, and climate change. So, it is proven that environmental and economic concerns are related (international environmental law + international economic law). Another important relationship is the one between quantity and quality because the pollution of a watercourse reduces the availability of water. ENVIRONMENT+ECONOMY; QUANTITY+QUALITY. For example, an environmentally unsustainable use of a watercourse will become economically unsustainable as well. These norms have to be considered not only in new activities but also in activities begun in the past (Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros case). We can see another example in the Pulp Mills case where the court in 2010 stated that there is the need for a balance between the right to use the river and the duty to protect.

it from any damage.

Economic vs environmental concerns in the two conventions

• The two important conventions we are now talking about are the ECE Water Convention and the UN Watercourses Convention. These two integrates the environmental concerns in the economic and quantity concerns (environment + economic + quantity). The first convention is more interested in the quality of water, while the second one is more concentrated on the apportionment of water.

Environmental concerns in the Economic Commission for Europe water process

• Since the 60s the main focus of the ECE was the development from the traditional apportionment to an integrated approach to water management and protection.
• In the 70s and 80s this approach reflected in a number of ECE declarations and recommendations.
• In the 90s the ECE has increasingly considered environment and development very connected, in fact its policy started to focus primarily on sustainable water management and protection.

from pollution. This is what brought to its Charter in 1989 based on the water management and the code of conduct on accidental pollution of transboundary inland waters of 1990. ECE instruments are non-binding but authoritative. The ECE convention was finally adopted in 1992 and entered into force in 1996, providing for water quality objectives and criteria. This convention obviously brought to more specific regulation such as the 1999 protocol on water and health protecting human health and well-being.

Environmental concerns in the United Nations Watercourses Convention:

• The question of the pollution was taken up in 1974 and at its 35th session in 1983 the commission recognized that the Chapter IV about pollution dealt with a vital issue.
• However, only in 1988 the convention held an extensive debate on the issue. This led to the adoption in 1990 of four articles on uses that may cause harmful pollution.
• The general obligation is to protect and preserve the ecosystem applying the principle

of precautionary action. Eventually equally importance was given to environment and use of environment. Also, the environmental standards ultimately established represent the minimum standards below which it is illegal.

Art 1 scope of the convention, which is the protection, preservation and management of the uses of watercourses.

Art 5 sustainable concept.

Arts 5-7 principles of equitable utilization and no-harm + water quality issues.

Art 20 protection and preservation of ecosystems.

CHAPTER 2 ECE Water Convention

Art 1 of the ECE Water Convention defines transboundary waters as any surface or ground waters which mark, cross or are located on boundaries between two or more states. Sea waters are excluded from the convention, but their environment is protected, such as any environment, including marine, air, land, fauna, flora, human health, soil, water, climate, landscape, historical monuments, physical structure, cultural heritage, socio-economic conditions. Its

ecosystemicapproach leads to the protection, control and reduction of transboundary impacts and for theconservation and restoration of the ecosystem.

UN Watercourses Convention

A watercourse is a system of surface waters and groundwaters constituting by virtue of theirphysical relationship a unitary whole and normally flowing into a common terminus.Both conventions address (a) activities that may affect water course and (b) activities that constituteuses of the watercourse that may affect elements of the environment outside it. This requires therelationship between water ecosystem and the ecosystem of the environment.

Groundwaters

Groundwaters are for sure an element of the ECE Water Convention (by definition oftransboundary waters), but they are an element of the UN Watercourses Convention only if theyare surface related. The difference between surface related and non-relate stays in the relationshipbetween ground waters and surface, because it is needed an

Il nostro compito è valutare la connessione con la superficie per determinare se abbiamo un acquifero confinato. Dal punto di vista legale, la questione è se sia necessaria una regolamentazione diversa per i diversi tipi di acque sotterranee. La risposta è che i principi applicabili alle acque superficiali si applicano anche a tutti i tipi di acque sotterranee.

La Commissione di diritto internazionale delle Nazioni Unite ha focalizzato l'attenzione sul tema delle acque condivise nel 2002 e nel 2008 ha adottato gli articoli di bozza sul diritto degli acquiferi transfrontalieri. Questi articoli di bozza si riferiscono agli acquiferi che sono formazioni geologiche permeabili contenenti acqua e sottostanti a uno strato meno permeabile. Inoltre, in questi articoli non vi è alcun riferimento alla sovranità sulle formazioni geologiche.

Le preoccupazioni mondiali riguardo alla scarsità di acqua, alla crescita demografica e ai cambiamenti climatici hanno ispirato le Disposizioni modello della Commissione economica per l'Europa sulle acque sotterranee transfrontaliere, adottate nel 2012.

In which they maintain the focus on the subjects of the draft articles making easier their implementation. Also, since groundwaters are the majority of global water supply, it felt right to fill the gaps in existing agreements: 2007 Convention on the Protection, utilization, recharge and monitoring of the Franco-Swiss Genevese Aquifer (Annemmasse region, Genevese communes, Viry commune vs republic and canton of Geneva); 2010 Guarani Aquifer Agreement (republic of Paraguay, republic of Argentina, republic of Brazil vs eastern republic of Uruguay).

CHAPTER 3

Articles 5 and 7 of the UN Watercourses Convention are the result of the debate whether the equitable utilization principle takes priority over the no-harm principle or vice versa.

The ECE Water Convention on the other hand took another approach, in article 2, about no-arm rule, states that parties shall prevent transboundary impact, and that they have to take all measures to make sure that waters are used in a reasonable and equitable way.

(no-harm rule + equitable principle). In fact, rather than giving more importance to no-harm rule, these principles are together. Often in fact the two conventions complement each other Obligation to prevent transboundary impact • The sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas principle was applied in the Corfu Channel case in 1949. Here the court said that every state has the obligation not to allow knowingly its territory to be used against other states. The same principle was used in court’s 1996 advisory opinion about the use of nuclear weapons, which established the general obligation to prevent. Both conventions consider the no-harm rule as a due diligence. In Pulp Mills case we see that the principle of prevention, as a customary rule, has its origin in the due diligence. While art 7 of the UN Watercourses Convention does not offer explicit explanation of “appropriate measures”, the ECE Water Convention does so. The