Lingua inglese 1

BREXIT: REASONS FOR THE REFERENDUM AND 'LEAVE' VICTORY

• Since the 2000s, the Conservative party had been losing votes to UKIP. Prime Minister David

Cameron saw the referendum as a way to gain support, unite his party, and resolve the debate over EU

membership.

• Globalization and competition, particularly from China, harmed regions like South Wales and

northern England, and even if they were benefitting from the EU regional development funding, many

blamed the EU for their!struggles.

• Rising immigration, seen as a threat to British identity, was linked to EU membership.

• Nostalgia for the past, especially among older generations, fueled

'Leave' sentiments.

• The Remain campaign emphasized the fear of leaving and not the benefits of remaining.

• Long tradition of euro scepticism in Conservative party and hostility to the EU in UK right-wing tabloid

press. Social media disinformation and misinformation campaigns for 'Leave'.

TODAY

Economy:

The UK is working on new trade agreements and adjusting its economic partnerships, such as joining

the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), which helps

facilitate trade with countries in the Asia-Pacific region.

Domestic Politics:

The unity of the UK is at risk, particularly regarding Northern Ireland and Scotland. The country is also

dealing with differences in regulations compared to the EU, affecting areas like labor laws and

environmental standards.

Geopolitics, Foreign Policy, and Diplomacy:

The UK is forming new alliances, such as AUKUS, which focuses on security and technology

partnerships with Australia and the U.S.

The government promotes the idea of "Global Britain," aiming to take a leadership role in international

issues, like environmental efforts showcased at COP26 in Glasgow.

Demographic Changes:

The UK has implemented a points-based immigration system to attract skilled workers. However, this

has led to staffing shortages in industries like agriculture and hospitality, which traditionally relied on

migrant labor.

Education:

The Turing Scheme has replaced the Erasmus program, allowing UK students to study abroad in

countries like Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, promoting international educational

opportunities.

BRITAIN IN THE WORLD IN THE 21ST CENTURY THE UK'S SOFT POWER

'Soft power' is the ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or

payments. It arises (nasce) from the attractiveness of a country's culture, political ideals, and

policies. Seduction is always more effective than coercion, and many values like democracy, human

rights and individual opportunities are deeply seductive.

Countries can both use soft power in their diplomatic activities and promote it as part of their public

diplomacy work.

British embassies and commissions ~> UK has 281 embassies and high commissions around the

world. The FCDO employs over 17,000 staff.

UK has the world's FOURTH most penetrative diplomatic network after China, the USA and France.

INSTITUTIONS OF BRITISH SOFT POWER

British Council

Founded in 1934, the British Council promotes British culture and education internationally by

fostering (ospitando) cultural and educational exchanges between the UK and other countries. It

operates in 100 countries worldwide.

BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)

Since 1991, BBC News has provided a 24-hour international service, reaching over 200 countries and

broadcasting in more than 40 languages.

It has an audience of 74 million people.

In 2021, the UK Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) provided £94.4 million to

support the BBC World Service, emphasizing accurate and independent news reporting to uphold

global democracy.

This included £8 million to combat disinformation and enhance the BBC's digital presence for global

audiences. THE UK'S HARD POWER

UK Army involvement in 21st Century Conflicts:

• Afghanistan War (2001-2021): the UK was involved in military operations to combat terrorism.

• Iraq War (2003-2011): British forces participated in the invasion and subsequent operations.

• Somali Civil War (2009-present): the UK has provided support and humanitarian aid.

• Libya (2011): the RAF took part in NATO-led airstrikes to protect civilians from Gaddafi's forces.

• Boko Haram Insurgency (2012-present): support for the Nigerian military and humanitarian efforts.

• Northern Mali Conflict (2013-2022): UK peacekeeping forces worked with MINUSMA.

Operation Shader (2014-present): ongoing operations against ISIS in Iraq and Syria.

• Ukraine (2022-present): training Ukrainian soldiers and supplying weapons.

• NATO Support: reinforcing NATO's eastern flank in response to Russian aggression in Eastern Europe.

• Yemen (2024): RAF airstrikes as part of US-led 'Operation Prosperity

Guardian' to protect shipping in the Red Sea.

• Operation Kinion: ongoing operations in the Persian Gulf. THE DEFENCE

The Defence spending

After Brexit, plans to cut defense spending have been halted due to the Ukraine war. Spending is now

expected to rise to 2.3%.

The UK is currently the sixth biggest defense spender in terms of GDP (PIL), following Saudi Arabia,

Russia, the USA, India, and South Korea.

UK Military Spending and Participation in Conflicts

• The UK is the sixth highest in the world for total military spending, accounting for 2.2% of GDP in

2020.

• Defense cuts could threaten Britain's image as a strong military nation.

• The UK contributes 2% of its GDP to NATO.

UK Military Involvement Since WWII

• The Troubles (Northern Ireland): 1968-1998

Falklands War: 1982

• Gulf War: 1991-92

Yugoslav Wars: 1991-2001

Bosnia: 1992-1995

Kosovo: 1998-1999

War on Terror in Afghanistan: 2001-2014 (with ongoing military training)

• Iraq Wars: 2003 and 2014-2017

• Libya: 2011 (as part of NATO)

• ISIL Conflict: 2014 onward.

UK Nuclear Power

• The UK is the third country to acquire nuclear weapons.

• The Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE) in Aldermaston, Berkshire, employs about 6,000 staff

and focuses on nuclear weapon development.

• Weapons are assembled at Burghfield, also in Berkshire.

• The UK currently has around 225 nuclear weapons, with plans for an increase.

• The Royal Naval Armament Depot (RNAD) in Clyde, Scotland, has 16 storage bunkers for Trident

missiles and torpedoes. UK Defence Industry

The UK is the second-largest defense exporter in the world, following the USA, with a 16% global

market share and a turnover of £25 billion in 2020.

BAE Systems

• BAE Systems is the largest defense company in Europe and the seventh largest globally based on

revenue.

• Founded in 1999, it acquired Lockheed Martin in 2000.

Its customers include Australia, Canada, Japan, India, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Qatar, Oman, and

Sweden.

The company is publicly traded and involved in major defense projects.

Al Yamamah Arms Deal

• The 1985 Al Yamamah arms deal with Saudi Arabia became controversial, involving BAE Systems and

Margaret Thatcher's son.

US FOREIGN POLICY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS PART 1

Ideologies : from isolationism to '' American First ''…

Here are the key ideologies that have shaped U.S. foreign policy over time:

1. Isolationism

The belief in avoiding entanglement in foreign conflicts, especially in Europe. Dominant in the

• late 18th to early 20th Century.

American Isolationism



Definition: American isolationism is a foreign policy approach that emphasizes avoiding involvement

in international conflicts and minimizing engagement in global affairs.

Main Idea-> The United States should prioritize avoiding involvement in European conflicts and

alliances.

Key Moments->

The main idea behind American isolationism is that the United States should avoid involvement

in European conflicts and alliances.

Key moments that shaped this ideology include President George Washington's Farewell Address in

1796, where he warned against forming permanent alliances with foreign nations, advocating for

neutrality. Additionally, the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 emphasized non-intervention in European affairs

while asserting U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

The rationale for this isolationist stance was that, as a young nation, the U.S. aimed to focus on its

own growth and security without getting entangled in the power struggles of Europe.

However, isolationism began to decline after World War I and significantly eroded after World War II,

as it became evident that global engagement was necessary for U.S. security and economic interests.

The Monroe Doctrine specifically outlined three key principles:

Non-Colonization: The U.S. opposed the establishment of new European colonies in the

• Americas.

Non-Intervention: European powers were urged to refrain from interfering in the affairs of New

• World nations.

Non-Interference: If these conditions were accepted, the U.S. would tolerate the presence of

• existing European colonies in the Americas and would remain aloof from European affairs.

Despite these principles, the U.S. lacked the power to enforce them until around 1900.

In summary, while isolationism defined early American foreign policy, its influence weakened as the

country recognized the necessity of global engagement in the face of evolving international dynamics.

2. Manifest Destiny

The idea that the U.S. was destined to expand across North America, driving westward

• territorial expansion in the 19th century.

Main Idea: Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand

• across the North American continent.

Key Moments: Significant events associated with this ideology include the Annexation of

• Texas in 1845, the Mexican-American War from 1846 to 1848, and the subsequent acquisition

of western territories.

Rationale: This belief was rooted in a sense of American exceptionalism and the conviction

• that the U.S. had a divine mission to spread its values and civilization.

Decline: While territorial expansion eventually ceased, the underlying belief in the promotion

• of American ideals continued to influence U.S. foreign policy in subsequent years.

3. Liberal Internationalism -> 1918- Present

Norman Rockwell's 'Four Freedoms' (1943): A Post-WWII Ideal

Rockwell's "Four Freedoms" were based on Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1941 State of the Union Address

and became symbols of post-WWII liberal internationalism:

1. Freedom of Speech – The right to speak freely.

2. Freedom of Worship – The right to practice any religion.

3. Freedom from Want – The right to economic security and opportunity.

4. Freedom from Fear – A world free from aggression and armed conflict.

These ide