Appunti completi esame Lingua inglese I

Lezione 1: Introducing English

Language change and variation in English

Languages are subject to a constant process of change which can take place:

• Suddenly (i.e., introduction of new words)
• Slowly (i.e., change of pronunciation from one generation to the next)
• Great Vowel Shift: a massive sound change affecting the long vowels of English during the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries. Basically, the long vowels shifted upwards; that is, a vowel that used to be pronounced in one place in the mouth would be pronounced in a different place, higher up in the mouth.

English is an influential and dynamic language. Different varieties of English exist around the world.

Global Englishes: varieties of English developed in different cultural contexts. Sociolinguists prefer the notion of a ‘speech community’ rather than a ‘language.’

=> Languages: open and dynamic entities adapting to the history and culture of the speech community in which they are in use.

Speech Community: any group of people speaking the same language. Within its members:

• Variation user (variety, dialect..);
• Variation use (genres, registers..);

Main factors according to users:

• Geographical location
• Age
• Gender
• Occupation
• Socio-economic status
• Educational background
• Ethnic group

Variation within the speech of one single person. Variation between people. Variation according to use:

• Language styles/registers (according to the occasion, medium used, topic under discussion, context, and interlocutor). Ex: I should be grateful if you would make less noise.

High/Formal Style vs Low/Informal Style

Politeness → Appropriate use of language (knowing what to say and when to say). Ex: Kindly refrain from smoking.

Differences between spoken and written

One is not better than the other; each is appropriate in certain circumstances.

Linguistic levels of differences

• Lexis, or vocabulary: lexical variation refers to the use of words that are specific to particular varieties of English.
• Grammar, including particular word forms (morphology) and sentence structure (syntax).
• Phonology, the sound systems of different varieties, including variation in the way particular sounds are pronounced, or ‘phonetically realised’.

Dimensions of language variation

Different types of variation:

• Synchronic variation = in terms of differences within one language in different places and among different groups at the same time.
• Diachronic variation = from the historical perspective of change through time (Saussure 1912).
• Diatopic variation = dependent on geographical factors:
  • English in the British Isles
  • English in America
  • English in the former Colonies
  • English around the world
• Diastratic variation = dependent on social factors - user’s variation.
• Diaphasic variation = dependent on the function of the message and on the global context in which communication takes place - use variation; different styles and registers; different aims of communication (English for General Purposes/English for Specific Purposes - ESP); restricted languages like Airspeak, Netspeak; Standard (RP pronunciation)/non-standard varieties (Coseriu 1973).
• Diamesic variation = dependent on the medium of communication (spoken/written language) - CMC (Computer-Mediated Communication) (Mioni 1983).

We shall look especially at diatopic (regional/national variation) and diastratic (social variation) in England (Dialects and Standard).

Lezione 2: The Status of Present-day English

• Since the beginning of the 20^th century, English = varieties of British English.
• Since the middle of the ‘80s, a new paradigm of studies and terminology: The Englishes paradigm. English is investigated in terms of:
  • Geographical location (American English, African English, etc.)
  • Linguistic and ethnic association (Black English, Maori English)
  • Activities such as commerce, education, culture, and technology (Airspeak, CMC)
  • Combinations of location and activity (British medical English, American legal English…)
  • Fusion of English with other languages (Spanglish, Indlish, Chinglish…)

English is spoken by between 1500 and 2000 million people in a number of different countries.

The diaspora of English

There are 3 main stages:

1. The expansion of English within the British Isles, namely Scotland, Wales, and afterwards Ireland (5^th to 13^th century).
   • The English colonisation did not result in the loss and death of Gaelic and Scots (minority languages, still spoken as a L2).
2. Discovery of new territories and the establishment of the British colonies in the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa.
   • Contact between English and other languages resulted in the development of Pidgins and Creoles.
3. Second diaspora, diffusion of English as SL in continents such as Africa and Asia during the 19^th and 20^th centuries, including American imperialism and globalisation.

Native speaker (NS) vs Non-native speaker (NNS)

• A native speaker of a language is a speaker who has learnt the language since early childhood.
• A non-native speaker will have learnt it later in life.

NNS: Labels – what’s the difference?

• English as a second language (ESL)
• English as a foreign language (EFL)
• English as an International language (EIL)
• English as a lingua franca (ELF)

Who speaks English today?

There are 3 groups of users:

• Those who speak English as a native language (ENL)
• As a second language (ESL)
• As a foreign language (EFL)

English as Native Language

The language of people born and raised in countries where English is (historically) the first language.

• Countries like: UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand —> as “traditional, cultural & linguistic bases.”
• Around 350 million ENL speakers worldwide.
• Not one single variety, with differences in territories (e.g., UK and US).

English in the British Isles, America, and Oceania

• Wales
• USA and Canada
• National and regional varieties:
• England: British English, different regional dialects in England, RP accent, Standard English
• Scotland: Scottish Standard English, Scots influenced
• Ireland: Hiberno-English in the North and in the South
• Urban British English: Cockney, Estuary English

English as a Second Language

Countries formerly colonised by the British → English gained importance in administration.

• English serves official purposes within these countries in law, education, and government.
• Worldwide, there are about 350 million ESL speakers.

English in Asia and Africa

• Indian English (Indlish)
• Singaporean English (Singlish)
• Malaysian English

English is an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, but it falls short of official status, such as in Malaysia, Brunei, United Arab Emirates, Bangladesh, and Bahrain.

English as a Foreign Language

• For speakers of EFL, English serves no purpose in their own country.
• Historically learned for communication with ENL speakers.
• Nowadays used for communication with other non-native speakers.

Difficulties with the three-way categorization

• ENL is not a single variety of English.
• Pidgins and creoles do not fit into the categorization.
• There are large groups of ENL speakers in ESL territories and vice versa.
• It is based on the concept of monolingualism, but bi- or multilingualism is the norm.
• It is based on the basic distinction between native speakers and non-native speakers, with the first group being considered superior regardless of the quality of their language.

The 3 circles of English

The US linguist Braj Kachru has suggested that we think of the spread of English around the world as 3 concentric circles.

• In the inner circle, we find people and countries that have English as a native language (ENL) —> 380 million.
• In the outer or extended circle, we have countries with different native languages that have adopted English as an official language (ESL) —> 300 million.
• The expanding circle includes countries where English is spoken as a foreign language (EFL) —> 1 billion.

Despite its name, this model is not circular or concentric, but a set of three contiguous ovals. The smaller unlabelled ovals belong presumably to the past (Kachru, 1985).

Limitations with Kachru’s model

• Based on geography and history, rather than the speakers’ use of English.
• Grey area between Inner and Outer Circles as well as Outer and Expanding Circles.
• The world’s bilingual or multilingual speakers are not taken into account.
• Difficulty of using the model to define speakers in terms of their proficiency in English.
• Does not account for the linguistic diversity within and between countries of a particular circle.
• The term Inner Circle implies that speakers from ENL countries are central, and may thus be interpreted as superior.

Pidgin

A simplified language derived from two or more languages is called a pidgin. It is a contact language developed and used by people who do not share a common language in a given geographical area. It is used in a limited way and the structure is very simplistic. Since they serve a single simplistic purpose, they usually die out.

Why pidgins?

• 19^th century
• Slaves from Africa brought over to North America
• Work in the plantation
• Separated and mixed up with people of other communities
• Unable to communicate, they couldn’t escape
• There is always a dominant language which contributes most of the vocabulary of the pidgin, this is called the superstrate language. The superstrate language from the Papua New Guinea Creole example above is English. The other minority languages that contribute to the pidgin are called the substrate languages.

Causes of pidgins

• Contact between two or more groups with no common language
• Often as a result of slavery or other population displacements
• Great motivation for speakers to communicate (and often of dramatic social inequality)
• Trade (originally, Lingua Franca and maritime jargon)

Origin of the word: The word pidgin seems to have had its origin in the inability of 19th-century Chinese to articulate the word business. It came out as bigeon or bidgin, and since it is a short step from B to P, it finally flattened out as pidgin. The superstrate language (the dominant variety, e.g., English), spoken by those with more power, is the source of most of a creole's vocabulary, while its substrate languages (the subordinate ones), spoken by the source populations, generate the syntax and phonology of the pidgin/creole.

Creole

If the pidgin is used long enough, it begins to evolve into a more articulate language with a more complex structure and richer vocabulary. Once the pidgin has evolved and has acquired native speakers (the children learn the pidgin as their first language), it is then called a Creole. An example of this is the Creole from Papua New Guinea, Tok Pisin, which has become a National language.

Language Use: Standard vs Creole

• Creole is used by most people for everyday, informal situations; it's the language most Jamaicans use at home and are most familiar with (and is closest to their hearts); it's also the language of most local popular music and Dub poetry.
• Standard, on the other hand, is the language of education, high culture, government, the media, and official/formal communications. It's also the native language of a small minority of Jamaicans (typically upper class and upper/traditional middle class).

Where ELF is used most?

• International business communication
• Academic communication
• Tourist communication
• Specific workplaces: air traffic control, university information services (e.g., for Erasmus students)

Lezione 3: EIL - English as an International Language

• English is not useful simply because it allows one to communicate with people from the UK or the USA but with people from an increasingly wide range of places.
• Statistically, English is now more often used for encounters between non-native speakers than it is with native speakers.

English as a global language

• Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a "world language," the lingua franca of the modern era. While English is not an official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a second language around the world. Some linguists believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural sign of "native English speakers," but is rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it continues to grow. It is, by international treaty, the official language for aerial and maritime communications. English is an official language of the United Nations and many other international organizations, including the International Olympic Committee.
• English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%), German (18%), and Spanish (8%). Among non-English-speaking EU countries, a large percentage of the population claimed to be able to converse in English in the Netherlands (87%), Sweden (85%), Denmark (83%), Luxembourg (66%), Finland (60%), Slovenia (56%), Austria (53%), Belgium (52%), and Germany (51%). Norway and Iceland also have a large majority of competent English-speakers.
• Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the world. English is also the most commonly used language in the sciences.

What is a global language?

A language that develops a social role recognised in every country as an official language (second language) or as a foreign language. A language does not become a global language because of its structural properties. A language becomes a global language for one main reason: the political, economical, and military power of its people.

The need for a global language

• Political bodies (from the 1950s in particular)
• United Nations
• International academic world
• Business community

The dangers of a global language (CONS)

• Linguistic power = People who speak it as a mother tongue could be in a privileged position.
• Linguistic complacency = It could eliminate the motivation for adults to learn other languages.
• Linguistic death = It could contribute to the disappearance of minority languages and cultures.

On the other hand... (PROS).

• Linguistic power = Language learning from early stages is encouraged.
• Linguistic complacency = Growing awareness of the importance to learn more languages, particularly in the English-speaking community.
• Linguistic death = The processes of language loss are independent from the emergence of a global language. Intelligibility and identity can co-exist.
• Local languages continue to represent local identities, as English is seen as the primary means of achieving a global presence.
• English plays a central role in empowering subjected and marginalized communities.

What factors led to the emergence of English as the leading global language in today’s world?

• Politics – The British Empire, a factor which carried over into the 20^th century.
• Economics – The Industrial Revolution (the workshop of the world) led to Economic Imperialism.
• Press – Development of a truly independent press (especially in the US, 450 newspapers by 1850). Today, a third of the world’s newspapers are published in countries where English has a special status. Reuter started an agency in Aachen but soon moved to London.
• Advertising – Towards the end of the 19^th century, mass production increased the flow of goods, consumers’ purchasing power grew, and new printing techniques displayed fresh possibilities. Especially in the US, publishers realized that advertising would allow them to reduce the prices of magazines.
• Broadcasting – English was the first language to be transmitted by radio. The first radio program was transmitted from Pittsburgh in 1950, and, within 2 years, there were over 500 broadcasting stations licensed in the US. A dramatic expansion affected television 20 years later.
• International travel and safety – The language of international travel and safety is English. In particular, the language of International Maritime Use (Seaspeak) and International Aircraft Control (Airspeak) is English.
• Education – ELT (English Language Teaching) business has become one of the fastest-growing industries in the world. English is used as a communication language in most higher-education courses or conferences on a number of subjects.

English as a language of power

• The power of English is mainly related to its functionality in contexts such as the global economy, communication technologies, business, and education.
• The knowledge of English allows and favours social mobility and work opportunities, and it signals the integration of a speech community within the so-called global market.
• English has become a sort of cultural capital or commodity through which it is possible to access material and immaterial goods.

Lezione 4: Difference between a Dialect and an Accent

• A dialect describes features of grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary.
• Three variables of dialect are:
  • Geographical: Where the speech community is based.
  • Social: What social group/s the speech community belongs to.
  • Temporal: In what time (present or historical) the speech community exists.
• An accent refers to the description of...