Lingua inglese

Module 1 Lesson 1

Focus on culture and identity

Defining culture

Use the words to come up with a working definition of culture: national, group, characteristics, unify, individual, adapt, habits, human, visible, common, group, values, collective, aspect, verb.

What is culture?

• The sum total of all the beliefs, values, and norms shared by a group of people.
• A large pool of experience composed of learned actions, passed on from generation to generation.
• All you need to know and believe in order to be accepted in a society.
• The way you have been conditioned by society to think, feel, interpret, and react.
• The collective programming of the human mind.

Or simply:

• Culture is the way we do things around here.
• Culture= having things in common, a we-feeling reinforced by language, clothes, behavior.

The concept of culture is used to create similarity and identify groups, but also to emphasize differences between cultures. You need to be prepared for difference in intercultural encounters where we are "the same" is less of a problem. Not that easy a concept, is it?

Some generally agreed characteristics of "culture":

• It's acquired → language often needed to join "group".
• Shared by diverse groups of people, not just geographical ones, for example..?
• Much of a person's culture is "unconscious" → we realize it's there when we meet people from different cultures.
• Culture is dynamic: speed of change is accelerating in modern context.
• Culture is part of a person’s identity: we don’t like to see it criticized.

Culture is a verb

British anthropologist Brian Street:

• Culture is not a thing, rather an active/dynamic process of making meanings, cannot be described in static terms.
• In continuous evolution, just like language.
• "Verb" is a linguistic term, so culture and language appear inextricably linked.

Singapore

British colony → independent in 1965. Four official languages: Chinese, Malay, Tamil, and English. Singaporeans consider themselves "native speakers" of English, but..

Giving instructions: important so…

• British English: personal autonomy and non-interference. You want to turn right.
• Singapore: personal autonomy is irrelevant so: "Turn on the light" → perfectly ok.

What may happen when these two cultures interact?

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

You what? Two American anthropologists (Sapir and Whorf) studied Hopi tribes in North America. Concluded that features of the language directly reflected the Hopi view of the world to the extent it sometimes limited their potential for perception. Use of color metaphor. They concluded that:

"We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language, the world is presented in a kaleidoscope flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds, and this means largely by the linguistic system of our minds." (1956)

Module 1 Lesson 2

Developing your understanding of culture it’s official.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) - A competence is defined as the ability to successfully meet complex demands in a particular context.

Ok, and so? What is intercultural competence?

Intercultural competence

• Knowing what to say and how, when, where, and why to say it. (Hofstede 2002, pg 18)

The cultural iceberg

• A- Things you can see and understand quite easily.
• B- Things you can see if you look hard.
• C- Things you can’t see however hard you look.

Module 1 Lesson 3

Cultural dimensions

Studying different cultures reasons, mainly US. Need for information on "national cultures". Who is he? - 1960’s Edward Hall Anthropologist Traveled a lot Research based on "stories" of own experience.

Hall’s researches

Stories led to cultural "dimensions". Finding still used today in intercultural communication:

• Proxemics.
• High/low context.
• Mono-chronic/poly-chronic.

Hall’s proxemics

• Physical distance considered "acceptable" and "normal" for communication.
• Varies significantly between cultures.

Stereotyped proxemics:

• Northern Europeans resent people from Mediterranean/Arab countries: stand too close/too much contact.
• They in turn see North Europeans as: cold, distant, possibly arrogant.

Hall → high or low context

• High context: things are understood, normal and correct way of doing things (politeness, etiquette, not necessary to communicate everything verbally).
• Low context: the opposite: thing need to be expressed (otherwise they’re not understood) and many aspects can or need to be negotiated between speakers to create understanding.

High context:

• Pick up non-verbal clues. What is not said is as important as what is. Close and long-lasting relationships.

Low context:

• Quite literal if not said, not important. Not usually focused on non-verbal aspects. Meaning in text (i.e., words), not context.

Mono-chronic

• Everyday life is divided up into separate tasks. One thing at a time. Punctuality/deadlines are important need to be respected.

N.B not monochromatic.

Poly-chronic

• Doing several things at a time. Events unpredictable so deadlines/schedules may change/evolve. Finishing things well is more important than finishing things on time. Relationships take precedence over time considerations.

Mono-chronic people at work/study

• Do one thing at a time. Concentrate on task in hand. Take time commitments (deadlines, schedules) seriously. Are low-context and need information. Are committed to finishing the job/task. Adhere religiously to plans. Are concerned about not disturbing others: follow rules of privacy and consideration. Are accustomed to short-term relationships.

Poly-chronic people at work/study

• Do many things at once. Are highly distractible and subject to "interruptions". Consider time commitments an objective to be achieved, if possible. Are high-context and already have information. Are committed to people and human relationships. Change plans often and easily. Are more concerned with those who are closely related (family, friends). Have a strong tendency to build lifetime relationships.

Some criticism of Hall

Out-of-date. Behavior and communication styles changed in countries. However, use of storytelling is useful as it provides extensive data. How’s he?

Hofstede

Management trainer working for IBM. Noticed big differences in way staff worked in different IBM subsidiaries. Saw these as "culture-based". Used a questionnaire to survey 100,000 staff. Statistical analysis of results.

Hofstede’s findings

Different dimensions to Hall:

• Power distance: how equally or unequally power is distributed in society/institutions/organizations.
• High power distance means obvious inequalities.
• Low power distance culture is flatter, less hierarchical.
• How might these be shown in a particular culture?

Uncertainty avoidance

• Uncertainty avoidance: how much uncertainty is tolerated in a society i.e., are members of a particular culture comfortable or uncomfortable in unstructured situations.
• So high uncertainty avoidance means people prefer familiar or predictable situations and avoid the contrary.

Individualism/collectivism

• How much individuals are expected to integrate into groups, for example to take decisions. The degree of interdependence among members of a society.

Masculinity/femininity

• Not men or women, but those characteristics associated with them, supportive vs competitive behavior for example.

Long-term orientation/short-term orientation

• Suggested to Hofstede by Chinese experts. Based on Confucian tradition of viewing the world over long periods, respect for age, and experience. "Short-termism" of Western cultures.

Indulgence/restraint

• Indulgence = gratification of human wishes and drives. Enjoying life.
• Restraint = putting off immediate enjoyment, conservative approach to life.

Summary of Hofstede

• End product "Classification" of different countries according to cultural dimensions.
• Possible comparisons "Riding the waves of cultures"

Trompenaars

Studied different communication styles globally. Used simple self-answer questionnaires. Also used "scenarios" to check what people’s reactions would be and extracted the values from these.

Trompenaars findings

Added to Hofstede's cultural dimensions.

• Universalism/particularism: how binding are the "rules" in a society/culture, more important than family and friendship? So universalism = rules are rules. Particularism = rules need to be "interpreted" in their context.

Key Trompenaars’ dimensions

• Individualism/collectivism:
• Neutral/emotional: how far individuals are expected to conceal their emotions.
• Internal/external control: how far the environment is under control of individuals or the other way around.
• Achievement versus ascription: status derived from a merit system (achievement) or status is hereditary or rooted in one’s community/position.

Scenario

A boss asks a subordinate to help him paint his house. The subordinate, who doesn’t feel like doing it, discusses the situation with a colleague.

• A: The colleague argues: you don’t have to paint if you don’t feel like it. He’s your boss at work. Outside he has little authority.
• B: The subordinates argue: despite the fact I don’t feel like it, I will paint it. He’s my boss, and you can’t ignore that outside work either.

Do you agree with A or B?

Scenario

A defect is detected in one of the installations; it was caused by the negligence of one of the members of a team. Responsibility for the mistake belongs to:

• A: the individual who caused it through negligence.
• B: the whole team who worked on the installation rather than the individual.

Scenario

The Returning Athlete: You are the mayor of a small town. An athlete from your town took part in the Olympic Games. The athlete is due to return tomorrow, having obtained fourth place in an event. What sort of official welcome will you prepare for her?

Scenario

You are a newspaper journalist who writes a weekly review of new restaurants. A close friend has put all her savings into a new restaurant. You have eaten there and you really think it isn’t good. What right does your friend have to expect you to go easy on her restaurant in your review?

• A: she has a definite right as a friend to expect me to go easy on her restaurant in my review.
• B: she has some right to expect me to do this for her.
• C: she has no right as a friend to expect me to do this for her.

Scenario

You are riding in a car one evening, driven by a friend. You notice that the car is traveling at 30 miles an hour in a 15-mph speed zone, and then the car strikes a pedestrian. The weeks that follow are a nightmare. Your friend is arrested. As the only witness, you are called to testify. Your friend’s lawyer asks you to say the car wasn’t speeding. You know your testimony could help your friend go to jail or stay out of it. Under oath, however, you feel a compulsion to tell the truth. What do you say?

Discussion questions

• Does measuring cultures, as Hofstede and Trompenaars have done, help to understand cultures in your opinion?
• What are the limitations?
• What criticisms do you have been made of the research we’ve seen?

Criticism of these methods

Questionnaire methodology:

• E.g. Hofstede: uncertainty avoidance:
• How often do you feel tense or nervous at work? 1-5
• How long do you think you will continue working at IBM? A. two years at most. B. from 2 to 5 years. C. more than 5 years. D. until I retire.

May lead to generalizations/stereotyping of "national cultures". Over-simplification of complex realities. Can statistics be used to really describe cultures accurately?

European values study

Basis of study by European Universities. Simpler to use than Hofstede etc… Based on criteria such as "family", "work", "religion", "politics" – less psychological dimensions.

National cultures

If meaning resides in interpretative practices and these are located in social networks, then culture and language-bearing units aren’t nations, ethnic groups, or the like—they aren’t units at all, but rather networks of interacting individuals. (Gumpertz 1996)

Module 1 Lesson 4

Stereotyping, essentializing, and othering in intercultural communications

Definition on stereotype

Fixed, race, person, attributes, people, characterize, gender, oversimplified, idea, thing, a group, belong, conforms, image, national origin. Now define essentializing and othering.

A little bit of knowledge

Goes a long way when dealing with other cultures. Need to be aware of some of your own values and beliefs in order to recognize those of people you meet from other cultures.

Where are you from? A perspective

As someone who was born and grew up in China, who has spent 15 years working in British higher education and lived in London and Newcastle, I have often found it difficult to answer the above. If I say I’m from London, I can guarantee that the next question will be: but where are you really from? I’m from China or somewhere in Asia. I’m Chinese but that’s not all…

Zhu Hua: exploring intercultural communication.

How they see you…

• Most Italians under 40 speak some English, but many will be embarrassed to talk.
• Sunday is holiday and not for church, but for soccer! When the games are on, you will see plenty of people walking down the streets with their family with a radio glued to their ear.
• Girl watching is a national pastime, second only to soccer. Don’t be alarmed when men stare at you. Men look at women as art historians look at the Sistine Chapel ceiling.
• Third after soccer and women come Formula One and the Ferrari team. Don’t even attempt to speak badly of Scuderia Ferrari in public. You might be verbally assaulted. Italian television spends one day showing soccer and 6 days talking about it. Other programming includes plenty of half-naked dancing girls and inappropriate nudity commercials and sometimes Formula 1 races.
• You shower at night in Italy, and you change to dress-up clothes before going out for the evening, whether you’re going to a restaurant or to a bar. Day wear is not considered appropriate for night time.
• In Italy it isn’t socially acceptable to be drunk. People boast about their alcohol resistance and no one would ever admit to be drunk.
• Italian men dress very nicely. Leather shoes and trousers are a lot more common than shorts and flip flops.
• You can see a lot of speedos on Italian beaches, and nobody finds it hilarious.

From an online international website: when Germans go on their package holidays, it’s said, they get up extra early and run down to the pool in order to receive the best sun lounges. That is at least what the British say…

Essentializing means:

Attributing essential characteristics to members of specific culturally defined (gender, age, ethnic, racial, socioeconomic, linguistic…) groups. When we "essentialize" others, we assume that individual differences can be explained by inherent, biological, "natural" characteristics shared by members of a group. Essentializing often results in thinking, speaking, and acting in ways that promote stereotypical and inaccurate interpretations of individual differences.

Essentialist thinking is often anchored in dualistic (two-category, either this-or-that) modes of thought: human/non-human, human/animal, human/machine, civilized/barbaric, masculine/feminine, intelligent/not intelligent, rich/poor, white/non-white, Anglo/non-Anglo, individual/group, psychological/cultural, leader/follower.

Essentializing: attributing qualities/behaviors to someone because they come from a particular culture

• You’re English, you should be on time.
• You’re Italian, you must sing well.
• You’re Spanish, you like siestas.

Ignores individual traits, preferences, experiences.

Essentializing - alive and well

One Spanish newspaper likened Gareth Bale (football player) to Welsh singer Tom Jones: "He’s from Wales," ABC wrote, "from the mines, where almost from birth, everybody is smeared in coal. They are born strong. Just look at Tom Jones with his golden voice."

And people don’t like it…

On being Japanese: "When outsiders visualize the Japanese they tend to think of men rather than women, career employees in large companies rather than..."