Appunti Lingua inglese III Anno - AS 2025-2026 - a computer

ARTICLES AND RELATIVE CLAUSES

 

- a/an indefinite singular countable nouns

 

- the definite specific noun known



- no article people/things in general, continents, countries, cities and lakes



Defining relative clauses IDENTIFY a person, a thing, a time, a place, a reason

 replace WHO-WHICH

- who (subject)

- whom (object)

- which (things)

- that (people or things)

- whose (the possessive of who/which)

- when (time)

- where (place)

- why (reason) 

Non-defining relative clauses give extra information, can be omitted

ADVERBS AND ADVERIBIAL PHRASES

Adverb = adjective + ly



Adverbs of frequency always, almost always, generally/usually, often/frequently, almost never/rarely,

never 

Adverbs of attitude explain feeling (honestly), comment on likelihood (definitely), explain reaction

(hopefully) 

Gradable adverbs very, rather, quite, a bit



Ungradable adverbs absolutely, really, completely

Confusing adverbs and adverbial phrases:

Actually (at the moment), especially/specially, hardly (hard), lately (late), nearly (near), yet/still



Comment adverbs in fact, apparently, basically, ideally, gradually (little by little), eventually (in the end),

obliviously (plainly evident), certainly (certainty)

PERFECT TENSES



Present perfect have/has + past participle



Used with finished actions with a present result, things startedin the

just/yet/already, with superlatives,

past and still continues

For + a period of time

Since + a point in time  

Present perfect vs simple perfect no time references, started in the past and still continues

 

simple time references, finished in the past



Present perfect continuous have/has + been + past participle



Used for recent activity with effects now, any actions has been continuous or repeated many times, to

suggest that any activity is temporary



Past perfect had + past participle

Used to make it clear which an action happened first



Past perfect continuous had + been + verb-ing

PAST TENSES

 

Past simple – wasn’t/weren’t – Was/Were …?

BE was/were

  verb + ed / didn’t + verb / Did + soggetto + verbo?

REGULAR

Used with a short completed action, a sequence of actions

 

Past continuous BE was/were + verb-ing

wasn’t/weren’t + verb-ing

Was/Were + soggetto + verb-ing ?

Used with an unfinished or continuing actions, a background situation

FUTURE FORMS

 

Going to be + going to + infinitive

+ 

- be + not + going to + infinitive



? be + subject + going to + infinitive ?

Used to talk about intention/idea for a plan, predictions, arranged plans, facts and schedules

 

Present continuous be + verb-ing

+ 

- be + not + verb-ing



? be + subject + verb-ing ?

Used to arranged plans, only with actions

 

Future simple – will will + infinitive

+ 

- will + not + infinitive



? will + subject + infinitive ?

Used for offers and requests, promises and threats, willingness or refusal, spontaneous decisions, subjectives

predictions (I think…), certainty in future.



Present simple events with regular schedule, future time clauses

While, as soon as, after, before, until, while



Modal verbs with future meaning will, may, might, should (expectation for future)

FUTURE TENSES



Future simple + will + infinitive



- will + not + infinitive



? will + subject + infinitive ?

Used for decisions on the moment, promises and offers, future events, make predictions about future

 

Future continuous will be + verb-ing

+ 

- will + not be + verb-ing



? will + subject + be + verb-ing ?

Used for actions in progress in the future

 

Future perfect simple will have + past participle

+

  will + not have + past participle

-

  will + subject + have + past participle

?

Used for something will be finished before a certain time in future



Time expressions by Saturday, by 2030, in 2 weeks, 4 months’ time, within the months/3 years

PRONOUNS, NOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS

Pronouns: 

- Subject I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they



- Object me, your, him, her us, yours, them



- Possessive mine, yours, his/hers, ours, yours, theirs



- Reflexive myself, yourself, him/her/itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves



- Relative who, whom, which, that, whose, hen, where, why

Nouns:

- Countable

- Uncountable

- Plural (es. Clothes)

- Collective (es. Staff, family, team)

Quantifiers: 

- Countable some/any, a few/few, not any, a lot of, lots of



- Uncountable some/any, a little/little, not any, a lot of, lots of

MODAL VERBS

Modal verb: a type of auxiliary verb used with the infinitive form of a main verb

 may, might, can, could, will, would, shall, should, must, ought to

Modal phrase: combination of an auxiliary verb form and the preposition “to” with the infinitive

 be allowed to, be able to, be supposed to, have to, need to

Possibility, ability, deduction:



- Theoretical possibility can, could



- Present/future likelihood may, might, could



- General ability typical behaviour can, could

can,

- Ability/opportunity be able to

Modal for deduction:



- Must certainly true



- Can’t certainly not true



- May-might possibly true

Obligation, necessity, prohibition and permission:



- Obligation/prohibition must, be allowed to, have to



- Present-future permission can, be allowed to



Modals for advice should, ought to, be supposed to

ZERO, FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD CONDITIONALS



0. Conditional IF + present simple + present simple (for general truth)



1. Conditional IF + present simple + will/won’t (for a real possibility in present/future)



Future time clauses when, as soon as, unless, until, before + present tenses



2. Conditional IF + past simple + would/wouldn’t (for unreal situation in present/future)



3. Conditional IF + past perfect, would have + past participle (unreal situation in the past)

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

Passive = be (conjugated) +past participle



Used when the agent is not the focus, we want to focus on the object

- Focus on the object that receives the action (the Mona Lisa is painted by Da Vinci)

- Unknown – obvious - unimportant agent (my bike was stolen)

- Write on a scientific/factual way (the chemical is placed in a test tube)

- Write in a formal way (the brochure will be finished in May)

- To put a new information at the end of a sentence (this book is written by Dr. Bell)

- The subject is very long (I was surprised by how well the students did on the test)

DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH

Tense changes: 

- Present simple past simple



- Present continuous past continuous



- Present perfect past perfect



- Past simple past perfect

Form changes:



- Must had to



- Will would



- Can could

Other change: 

- Tomorrow the next day



- Yesterday the day before



- Last week the week before



- Here there 

- This morning that morning



- Next Friday the following Friday