Appunti esame English Language 1

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

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GRAMMAR it focuses on language structure.

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MORPHOLOGY it focuses on formation and composition of words.

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SYNTAX is the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words.

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PHONOLOGY the system of contrastive relationships among the speech sounds that constitute the

fundamental components of a language. It studied how sounds are organized.

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PHONETICS is the term used for the study of sound in human language. This is the study of the speech

The speech is modified breathing: it is audible because the movements of articulators cause the air to

vibrate, forming sound waves which travel to the hearer’s ears. The waves are then translated into sound

again by the brain.

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SEMANTICS it focuses on how meaning is inferred from words and concepts.

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PRAGMATICS it concentrates on language used by human beings and the way in which they use it.

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ACOUSTICS the term used for the study of sound in general.

SPEECH CAN BE ANALYSED IN DIFFERENT WAYS:

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1. ARTICULATORY PHONETICS studies the movements of the tongue, lip and other speech organs.

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2. ACOUSTICS PHONETICS studies how ears receive the speech signal.

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3. PSYCHOACOUSTICS study how speaker’s brain formulates the speech message and how the

listener’s brain receives and interprets it.

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4. PRACTICAL PHONETICS focuses on teaching/ learning how to reproduce a wide range of speech

sounds. HOW CAN WE REPRESENT SOUNDS?

Phonetics make use of phonetic alphabet to represent sounds. The representation of sounds is called

PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION.

Each language has its own system of vowel and consonants and has also specific rules for combining them

into sounds. Sounds of languages are included in a specific alphabet called INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC

ALPHABET (IPA).

There are many varieties, dialects and accents of English. So, we need to focus mainly on one variety of

English pronunciation. It is called STANDARD BRITISH ENGLISH.

➔ Type of British pronunciation most established as a teaching standard.

➔ Mainly spoken in the south of England.

➔ Also called SSB (standard southern British), BBC ENGLISH (British broadcasting corporation) and GB

(general British).

➔ All languages exist in a number of different forms.

➔ There are several ways in which the language can be pronounced (ACCENTS).

➔ There are variations in grammar and vocabulary speakers use (DIALECTS).

➔ Variations in the field of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation.

➔ Language variation can include regional variations (it includes differences between one place to

another) and social variations (it reflects differences between one social group and another).

THE SPEECH MECHANISM.

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Speech is an OVERLAID FUNCTION no organs whose primary function is to produce speech.

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ARTICULATORS parts of the speech mechanism that serve to produce different configurations which

make up different sounds. ARTICULATORY SYSTEM.

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THROAT extends from the posterior portion of the nasal cavity back of the oral cavity to the larynx.

➔ Pharynx is a vertical tube with 3 parts:

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1. NASOPHARYNX continuation of the nasal cavity. Directly behind nasal cavity.

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2. OROPHARYNX continuation of the oral cavity. Opens to mouth. Very versatile in assuming a

variety of configurations.

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3. LARYNGOPHARYNX area just above larynx. Vibrating mechanism that houses the vocal

folds. Sits on the top of trachea.

4 PARTS OF THE SPEECH:

ORAL CAVITY

1. : →

LIPS (LABIO / LABIAL) A. Bounded by the cheeks and nose.

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B. ORBICULARIS ORIS lip muscle that can contract to round, protrude, or spread the lips to make

various speech sounds.

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C. PHILTRUM grooved indentation in the center of the upper lip.

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D. VERMILION adaptation of the mucous membrane that lines the mouth.

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SOUNDS PRODUCED AT LIPS Bilabial /p, b, m, w/.

Labiodental /f, v/.

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TEETH (DENTO / DENTAL) Important for sounds involving “lip and teeth” and “tongue and

teeth”. → →

- LABIODENTAL SOUNDS /f, v/ lip + teeth.

→ →

- LINGUA-DENTAL SOUNDS /t, d/ tongue + teeth-

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- DENTAL OCCLUSION how the teeth fit together when you bite down.

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ALVEOLAR RIDGE A. Sounds made at alveolar ridge /t, d, l, n, s, z/.

B. Is where the teeth fit into their sockets.

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HARD PALATE (PALATO / PALATAL) A. Anterior roof of mouth.

B. Bone covered with membrane.

C. Sounds made at hard palate /ʧ, ʤ, j, ʃ, ʒ/.

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SOFT PALATE (VELO / VELAR) A. Movable fold of mucous membrane that is continuous with hard palate.

B. Divides oral cavity from nasal for non-nasal sounds. It lowered for nasal

sounds.

C. Sounds make at velum /k, g, ŋ/.

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TONGUE (LINGUA / LINGUAL) A. Most important of the articulators.

B. Muscular organ capable of intrinsic and extrinsic movements

(responsible for up and down, backward and forward).

C. Divided into parts:

1. TIP.

2. FRONT OR BLADE-BENEATH ALVEOLAR RIDGE.

3. MIDDLE- BENEATH HARD PALATE.

4. BACK- BENEATH VELUM.

5. ROOT- MOST IMPORTANT PART OF THE TONGUE.

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MANDIBLE (MANDIBULO / MANDIBULAR) A. Lower jaw.

B. Regulates the size of opening beneath teeth.

C. Tongue is connected to mandible by the lingual frenum which attaches tip and

blade of tongue to floor and mouth.

NASAL CAVITY

2. :

➔ Extends from the nostril (NARES) to pharynx (THROAT).

➔ Important in resonance by opening or closing of velopharyngeal part.

➔ Velopharyngeal wave or part is formed by the soft palate making contact with the pharyngeal wall.

➔ Must be closed for vowels and non-nasal consonants /g, ŋ/.

3. PHARYNX.

LARYNX

4. .

The majority of sounds found in human speech are produced by an EGRESSIVE pulmonic airstream.

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EGRESSIVE are sounds by which the air stream is created by pushing air out through the mouth or nose.

An outgoing stream of air produced by the lungs contracting and thus pushing the air contained within

them outwards. The AIRSTREAM passes through the larynx and passes along a tube formed by mouth and

nose. If the configuration of the vocal tract changes, the sound changes too.

When organs come into contact to produce sound, they articulate.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

.

→

AIRWAYS Include nose, mouth, larynx, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles carries air between

the lungs and the body’s exterior.

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LUNG Act as the functional units of the respiratory system by passing oxygen into the body and carbon

dioxide out of the body. →

MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION Include the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, work together to act as a

pump, pushing air into and out of the lungs during breathing. It is an apparatus dedicated to the

management of gaseous exchanges between organism and environment.

THE PHONATORY SYSTEM

.

Larynx has 3 purposes:

1. Prevent food from going into trachea.

2. Covers glottis during eating and drinking to prevent food and liquids from going into lungs.

3. Create a construction in vocal tract which produces a sound source for communication.

VOCAL FOLDS / VOCAL CORDS.

➔ Mucous membranes that attach separately to the arytenoid cartilages in back of larynx and come

together in front at angle of thyroid cartilage.

➔ POSITION OF VOCAL FOLDS:

A. OPEN: for normal inhalation/ exhalation.

B. CLOSED: for phonation.

➔ FOR VOICELESS SOUNDS: the vocal folds and the arytenoid cartilages are held wide apart as in

relaxed breathing.

➔ FOR VOICED SOUNDS: the arytenoids are firmly closed, and the vocal folds vibrate at high speed in

the airstream produced by the lungs.

GLOTTAL STOP

.

➔ Glottal stop is at the other extreme from voiceless. The vocal folds and the arytenoids are close

together so that the airstream coming from the lungs is stopped. On the release of the glottal

closure, the blocked air rushes out with an effect rather like a weak cough, or the noise one makes

when lifting a heavy weight.

➔ Glottal stop, in English is not a phoneme, but plays a very important role as a reinforcement of

fortis stop consonants. CREAK.

Creak is like a succession of glottal stops, sounding rather like and old door creaking open. The arytenoids

are firmly pressed together. These vibrations are slow enough almost to be heard individually.

CREAKY VOICE (VOCAL FRY).

Creaky voice is a creak combined with voice. Creaky voice is nevertheless easier to imitate and much

commoner in language. Creaky voice is common in GB English an also in much American speech.

WHISPER.

➔ For whisper the vocal folds are brought together but do not vibrate. The arytenoids are held apart

leaving a gap at the rear of the larynx through which air passes at fairly high velocity.

➔ A combination of voice and whisper is known as breathy voice. It’s associated with “sexy” voices

and breathy voices is used by popular singers as a special effect. A significant aspect of such singing

is the deliberate introduction of a wide variety of different larynx settings and voice qualities.

SYLLABLES.

➔ A syllable is like one pulse of speech. It always contains one loud or prominent part and have

consonant sounds preceding or following the vowel.

➔ Are unequal. In some we can hear the sounds very clearly.

SYLLABLE- TIMED AND STRESS-TIMED LANGUAGES.

➔ Italian, French, and Spanish: SYLLABLE-TIMED LANGUAGES. Syllables take roughly the same amount

of time to pronounce.

➔ English and German: STRESS-TIMED LANGUAGE. The stressed syllables are pronounced at

approximately regular intervals while the unstressed ones shorten to fit this rhythm.

➔ A syllable is WEAK (REDUCED) if it contains one of the vowels /ə/ , /i/, /u/ or a syllable consonant

(in unstressed syllables).

➔ A syllable is STRONG (FULL) if it contains any of the other vowel or diphthongs.

EXERCISE: INDICATE WEAK AND STRONG SYLLABLES.

→ →

/ˈkælɪndə(r)/

1. CALENDAR STRONG/ WEAK/ WEAK.

→ →

/ˈvɪzɪtə(r)/

2. VISITOR SYLLABLE STRONG AT THE BEGINNING.

→ /ˈreɪni/

3. RAINY → →

/ˈpʌnɪʃəbl/

4. PUNISHABLE SYLLABLE STRONG AT THE BEGINNING, AND 2° SYLLABLE IS WEAK.

→ →

/ˈkʌstədi/

5. CUSTODY SYLLABLE STRONG AT THE BEGINNING, THEN IS WEAK.

→ →

/ əˈkɒmplɪʃmənt/

6. ACCOMPLISHMENT THE SECOND SYLLABLE IS STRONG.

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A. 2 syllable words stressed on the first syllable THIS IS NOT FOR ME / I CAN GO WITH HER.

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B. 2 syllable words stressed on the second syllable RAINY / ABOUT.

→

C. 3 syllable words EVERYDAY / TOMORROW.

NUMBER OF SYLLABLES.

→ → /kæt/.

1. CAT ONE SYLLABLE

→ → / ˈwɔːtə/.

2. WATER TWO SYLLABLES

→ → /təˈmɒrəʊ/.

3. TOMORROW THREE SYLLABLES

→ → /ˈpæʃənɪt/.

4. PASSIONATE THREE SYLLABLES

WHICH IS THE STRESSED SYLLABLE?

1. THE FIRST SYLLABLE IS STRESSED:

ˈfɒləʊˈ/.

→

A. Follow /

→ /ˈævərɪʤ/.

B. Average ˈblaɪndɪd/.

→

C. Blinded / → /ˈdeɪnʤrəs/.

D. Dangerous

→ /ˈfɛbrʊəri/.

E. February → /ˈlɪtərɪʧə/.

F. Literature ˈɒrɪʤɪn/.

→

G. Origin / ˌriːlækˈseɪʃən/.

→

H. /

Relaxation → /ˈsɛkrətri/.

I. Secretary

2. THE SECOND SYLLABLE IS STRESSED:

→ /əˈmeɪz/.

A. Amaze → rɪˈlɪʤən/

B. / .

Religion → /əˈpriːʃɪeɪt/.

C. Appreciate əˈtɛnʃ(ə)n/.

→

D. Attention /

→ kəˈmjuːnɪti/.

E. Community /

→ kəmˈpænjən/.

F. Companion /

→ fəˈgɪvnɪs/.

G. Forgiveness /

→ həˈraɪzn/.

H. Horizon / əbˈstrʌkʃən/.

→

I. Obstruction /

→ pəˈsɪstənt/.

J. Persistent /

→ rɪˈtaɪəmənt/.

K. /

Retirement

3. THE THIRD SYLLABLE IS STRESSED.

ˈkɒntrɑːst

→ kənˈtrɑːst

/ . / / VERB.

A. Contrast / NOUN

ˌhɒrɪˈzɒntl/.

→

B. Horizontal / ˌɪnfəˈmeɪʃən/.

→

C. /

Information

4. THE FOURTH SYLLABLE IS STRESSED.

ˈpɜːsnəlaɪz/.

→

A. /

Personalize ˌɒstɪəʊpɔːˈrəʊsɪs/.

→

B. /

Osteoporosis

FUNCTION (AL) / GRAMMATICAL WORDS VS CONTENT / LEXICAL WORDS.

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1. CONTENT / LEXICAL WORDS include nouns, verbs, adjectives and most adverbs. They belong to

OPEN WORD CLASSES because their membership can be added to, as new words come into use.

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2. FUNCTION / GRAMMATICAL WORDS might be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs,

conjunctions and articles. They belong to CLOSED WORD CLASSES. In English one does not expect to

encounter a new pronoun or a new preposition.

CLASS A FUNCTION WORDS.

→

They have 2 forms weak and strong:

1. A usual WEAK FORM containing schwa /ə/.

2. A less usual STRONG FORM only used:

a. For emphasis.

b. In “citation forms”/ quotations.

c. At the end of the phrase.

USUAL WEAK FORM CONTAINING SCHWA.

→ /ə/.

- A → /ən/.

- AN → /əm/.

- AM → /ə/.

- ARE → /wəz/.

- WAS → /wə/.

- WERE

→ kən

kæn/ kn/.

- CAN / strong form. / ,

əv

→

- OF / /.

→ ðən/.

- THAN /

→ ðət

- THAT / /.

ðiː

→ /ðə

- THE / / before vowels. / before consonants.

→ tu/ /tə

- TO / before vowels. / before consonants.

CLASS B FUNCTION WORDS .

They generally have only one form, not containing /ə/.

→ →

1. MAIN VERBS have, has, had she had a cold.

→

2. PREPOSITIONS off, on.

→

3. NEGATIVES not, can’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t, aren’t, wasn’t, weren’t.

→

4. DEMOSTRATIVES that, this, there.

5. INTERROGATIVES.

6. POSSESSIVES. →

7. CONJUNCTIONS or.

→

8. PRONOUNS you, he, she.

→

HAVE note the difference between the auxiliary /həv/ and main verb /hav/.

→

THAT note the difference between conjunction /ðət/ and demonstrative /ðat/.

→

CAN note the difference between positive /kən/, /kn/ and negative /ka:nt/.

→

- Function words ending in written “e” have the sound /i/ be, he, we, she, and the before a

vowel. →

- Function words ending in written “I” + consonant have de sound /I/ is, him, his, with, in, if.

EXERCISE: IDENTIFY THE FUNCTION WORDS.

→

1. Terms and conditions apply /ən(d), n/.

→

2. From time to time /frəm/ /tə/.

→

3. We can see some patchy rain /wi:/ /kən, kn/. →

4. Scotland and New Ireland will see the best of the sunshine /ən(d), n/ /wil/ /əv/ /ðə/.

→

5. Hundreds of thousands of people are without power /əv/ /ə/.

→

6. We are having a party /wi:/ /ə(r)/ /ə/.

→

7. He’s been nominated as a candidate /hi/ /z/ /bi:n/ /əz/ /ə/.

→

8. Those are the latest stones from BBC news / ə/ /ðə/ /frəm/ /əv/.

ðəʊz/ /

ʌs

→

9. He’s here with us /hi/ /z/ /hiə(r)/ /wið/ / /.

θruː/

→

10. I heard it through the grapevine /ai/ /it/ / ðə/.

/

KEY TERMS

.

→ →

MINIMAL PAIR two words that are pronounced the same except for one sound bag, bug/ let, let /set,

set. → →

ALLOPHONE a variant of a phoneme. Often not noticed by native speakers spin, pin.

→ →

DIPHTHONG a double vowel sound. Two vowels appearing together as the nucleus of a syllable wave,

kraʊd.

weiv/ boy, bɔɪ sail, seil / laud, laʊd/ crowd,

/ PHONEME.

➔ Phoneme is a unit of sound significant in a specific language. It is one of the units of sound that

distinguish one word from another in a particular language. We can say MAN has three phoneme

/m/ /æ/ /n/.

➔ The difference in meaning between the English words KILL and KISS is a result of the exchange of

the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/. Two words that distinguished by a single sound are called

minimal pairs. MINIMAL PAIRS OR NOT?

In the L sound comes AFTER the vowel or diphthong in a syllable, it will be a velar or dark L sound.

VOWELS: a, e, I, o, u.

DIPHTHONGS: two vowels sound together.

The dark L sound is a VOICED sound, so your vocal cords will make the sound. The dark L sound is often

found in the middle or at the end of a word.

EXERCISE: FIND MINIMAL PAIRS.

→

1. /u/ and /ʊ/ two-too / fool-foot.

→

2. /r/ and /l/ road-load / arrive-alive / play-pray / red-led/ fry-fly.

→

3. /s/ and /θ/ think-sink / gross-growth / mouse-mouth / sank-thank.

→

4. /f/ and /v/ fan-van / fast-vast.

→

5. /t/ and /d/ but-bad / to-do/ try-dry / town-down.

→

6. /əʊ/ or /oʊ/ and /aʊ/ low-cow / show-cow /no-now.

→

7. /p/ and /f/ past-fast / pool-full / pine-fine/ paint-faint/ pyre-fire/ pail-fail.

→

8. /æ/ and /ei/ wet-wait / snack-snake / pan-pain / lack-lake-

→

9. /ɛ/ and / æ/ bet-bat.

→

10. /ʌ/ and /ɒ/ luck-lock / abset-onset.

→

A. Sheep ship.

→

B. Bean been / mean / lean / seen / beach.

→

C. Sick / cheek / pick / click chick.

→

D. Will / Holl hill.

→

E. Peach reach / pitch / beach.

→

F. Slim / skin / skip / skill skim.

→

G. Sock / pick / thick sick.

→

H. Steal still / meal / feal.

→

I. Hill / bill / wish / weal will.

EXERCISE: HOW MANY SYLLABLES DO YOU HEAR?

ɪˈreɪzə/.

→ → →

1. ERASER 3 syllables the second is stressed. / ˌfæsɪˈneɪʃən/.

→ → →

2. FASCINATION 4 syllables the third is stressed. /

→ → →/

3. COMMAND 2 syllables the second is stressed. kəˈmɑːnd/.

→ → →

4. TOMORROW 3 s