Contemporary History

Contemporary History Exam Material

Domenica 22 giugno 2025

Lezione 2

The Industrial Revolution originated in England in the 1840s before spreading throughout Europe. It was marked by significant societal changes, including increased consumption of goods and a new, more disciplined concept of time, where the rhythm of work became dependent on machines.

Central to the capitalist factory model was the machine, which institutionalized the division of labor. As factories sprang up in urban areas, people migrated from rural lands to cities, leading to population growth and a heightened demand for goods and services.

This period is often divided into agrarian, commercial, and transport revolutions. Farmers adopted new agricultural practices and expanded into new lands, resulting in increased production. The first railways were built in 1825, and the steam engine began to replace human and animal power in looms, significantly boosting cotton production. Notably, women and children played a crucial role in the cotton industry.

Proto-industrialization refers to a pre-factory phase of industrial development characterized by a marked increase in manufacturing for long-distance trade. It is essential to distinguish between the Industrial Revolution and the Industrious Revolution. The latter refers to a period of increased household labor and production for the market, driven by a growing desire for consumer goods. In contrast, the Industrial Revolution, which followed, was characterized by major technological advancements, particularly in manufacturing.

Luddism emerged as the first phase of the British labor movement, marked by riots against the introduction of machines and the resulting unemployment, beginning in 1811.

Lezione 3

I. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

The Congress of Vienna marked a pivotal moment in European diplomacy, concluding the bilateral era and ushering in a network of multilateral treaties among the great powers. Instead of simply restoring the pre-1815 territorial status quo, it established a new order that maintained the existing boundaries.

II. The European Concert

This new system laid the groundwork for the European Concert, where five major powers acted as a governing council to resolve international issues. The 19th century is often characterized as a peaceful era, as no wars involving most of the great powers erupted. This period produced a lasting peace while facilitating gradual changes in the political landscape.

III. Balance of power

The stability of the era can largely be attributed to the balance of power, which curtailed the struggle for hegemony. During this time, Britain held supremacy in the West through liberal constitutionalism, while the Russian Empire maintained a grip on the East through absolutism.

IV. Revolutions of the early 19th century

The early 19th century was also marked by numerous revolutions, including uprisings in Spain and Portugal in 1820, and revolts in Naples, Piedmont, Peru, and Panama in 1821. The Greek declaration of independence followed in 1822, formalized by the Treaty of Constantinople. Additionally, the Decembrist revolt occurred in Russia in 1825.

V. The Revolution of 1848

The economic crisis of 1846-47 led to a significant revolution in 1848, fueled by rising unemployment, famine, poverty, and social distress. The populace demanded a constitution that guaranteed civil rights and established representative institutions.

Lezione 4-5

Between the 18th and 19th centuries, the term “nation” began to define a collectivity with the right to exercise political authority over a specific territory. Nationalism emerged as the fundamental political language of 19th-century Europe, characterized by its roots in the French Revolution and its Romantic culture. This culture fostered a sense of community among people who shared a common history, language, and culture, thereby granting the nation the right to political sovereignty over its territory based on this presumed commonality of identity.

The concept of national identity transitioned from a right of soil to a right of blood. Two prevalent political systems during this period were liberalism and democracy. Liberalism aimed to establish a free market, a civil society, and constitutional parliamentary institutions, while democracy was grounded in the principles of the Republic.

Significant events during this era included the unification of Italy in 1861, which resulted in a United National Monarchy, followed by the unification of Germany ten years later into a National Federal Empire, known as the Second Reich. The First Reich was the Holy Roman Empire, which dissolved in 1806.

Italy experienced several independence wars between 1848 and 1861, starting in Naples and Milan before spreading across the peninsula. These conflicts culminated in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies by Garibaldi, who subsequently handed his achievements to King Vittorio Emanuele II of Piedmont.

The term “Sonderweg,” meaning “special path,” refers to a theory in German historiography that posits Germany followed a unique trajectory from aristocracy to democracy, distinct from other European nations.

Lezione 6-7

I. Imperialism and its impacts

Imperialism characterized world politics among the great powers, driven by their technological and industrial advancements. This policy aimed to achieve hegemonic political, economic, and cultural dominance over less developed nations, significantly influencing the late 19th century and the aftermath of World War I. During this time, the League of Nations played a pivotal role in contesting such foreign policies.

II. European expansion and informal empires

Europe’s expansion involved not only formal colonization but also the spread of informal influence, leading to the creation of informal empires. For example, the Ottoman Empire increasingly fell under the control of Britain, France, and Germany.

III. Conflicts in China

China resisted foreign incursions until it was forced open by Japan’s rising power following the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95. The First Opium War (1839-42) and the Second Opium War (1856-60)—also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China—involved Britain and France fighting against China. In each instance, foreign powers emerged victorious, gaining commercial privileges and legal and territorial concessions, which marked the beginning of an era of unequal treaties.

IV. The Scramble for Africa

The Scramble for Africa, spanning from 1884 to 1914, saw European colonizers partitioning the largely unexplored continent into protectorates, colonies, and free trade areas. In the case of the Boer/Transvaal Wars (1880-1881 and 1899-1902), Britain’s desire to unite its South African territories intensified following the discovery of gold in the South African Republic (SAR) in 1886.

V. Ideological underpinnings

Imperialism was underpinned by Social Darwinism, which justified the subjugation of the weaker by the stronger. This ideology led to racial classification and biological racism, fostering a civilizing mission aimed at obliterating what were deemed inferior races. Consequently, colonialism fueled a new form of nationalism.

Lezione 8

Etienne Cabet was the first to use the term “communism” to describe a future society character