Appunti di Lingua inglese 1

Lingua Inglese 1PDF 11. The paradigm shift: From English to "Englishes"

Historically, English was studied as a single language originating from Britain. However, since the mid-1980s, there has been a shift in paradigm. We no longer look at "English" as a monolithic entity, but rather as "Englishes"—a collection of many varieties.

This change occurred because English moved across the world and adapted to new environments. As your notes mention, when a language moves, it adapts quickly to name new things, leading to new vocabulary and unique varieties. Today, we investigate English based on:

• Geographical location: e.g., American, African, or Indian English.
• Ethnic association: e.g., Black English or Maori English.
• Specific activities: e.g., "Airspeak" for aviation or "CMC" (Computer-Mediated Communication, English of the Internet).
• Fusions: e.g., Spanglish (Spanish + English) or Hinglish (Hindi + English).

Global statistics

English is the most spoken language today, but not because of native speakers.

• Total users: 1.5 to 2.2 billion.
• Native Speakers (L1): ~400 million.
• Second-language speakers (L2): 750 million (English is adopted as an official language).
• Foreign-language learners: over 1 billion.

2. The three diasporas of English

The spread of English happened in stages, often called "diasporas" (meaning separation or displacement).

1. First Diaspora (Internal): The expansion within the British Isles (Scotland, Wales, and Ireland) between the 5th and 13th centuries.
2. Second Diaspora (Colonialism): The discovery of new territories like the USA, Canada, and Australia. This involved colonizing inhabited lands, leading to the rise of new varieties.
3. Third Diaspora (Imperialism & Globalization): The diffusion of English into Africa and Asia during the 19th and 20th centuries, followed by American cultural and economic influence (globalization).

3. Classifying speakers: ENL, ESL, and EFL

Linguists categorize English users into three main groups:

• ENL = English as a Native Language —> language of people born and raised in English-speaking countries. Ex. UK, USA, Canada;
• ESL = English as a Second Language —> used in former colonies for official purposes (law, education, government). Ex. India, Nigeria, Singapore;
• EFL = English as a Foreign Language —> learned for international communication but has no official internal purpose. Ex. Italy, Japan, China.

Lingua Franca (ELF) vs. International Language (EIL)

• ELF (English as a Lingua Franca): Used between two speakers who neither have English as a native language (e.g., an Italian speaking to a German).
• EIL (English as an International Language): A broader term including communication between native and non-native speakers in international contexts.

4. Kachru’s three concentric circles

The linguist Braj Kachru created a famous model to visualize how English is used globally. He identified a framework for understanding English globally by putting countries into three different circles.

1. The Inner Circle (Norm-providing): Countries like the UK and USA. They "provide" the rules and norms of the language.
2. The Outer Circle (Norm-developing): Countries like India or Nigeria (ESL). They have developed their own "localized" norms and varieties.
3. The Expanding Circle (Norm-dependent): Countries like Italy or Japan (EFL). They generally follow the norms established by the Inner Circle.

5. Contact languages: Pidgins and Creoles

When speakers of different languages need to communicate but don't share a common tongue, "contact languages" emerge.

Pidgins

• A simplified language with no native speakers.
• It has a limited vocabulary and a very basic grammar.
• Superstrate: The dominant language (usually English) that provides the vocabulary.
• Substrate: The minority languages that influence the grammar/sounds.

We don’t have an articulate grammar or vocabulary, we use a simplified language in order to communicate. They tend to die out, but most of the times they are replaced by creoles. Pidgin is not a language on its own.

Creoles

• If a pidgin is used long enough and children start learning it as their first language, it becomes a Creole.
• Example: Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea (from "Talk Pidgin"). It is now a stable, national language with its own dictionary and complex grammar.

6. Summary of key concepts

• Global Lingua Franca: English is used actively (communication) and passively (media, gaming) by billions.
• Diversity: Britain alone has over 42 dialects; English is not "one" but "many."
• Globalization: We consume global products locally, often mixing global culture with our own peculiar traditions.
• The Digital Age: English continues to evolve through social media, AI, and internet slang.

PDF 2: The reasons behind the global dominance of English, the concept of a "speech community," and the sociolinguistic factors that cause a language to vary

1. Why English? The role of power

A common misconception is that English is a global language because its grammar is "easy" or because it has fewer rules. As your lecture notes and slides clarify, a language becomes global primarily due to the political, economic, and military power of its people.

English was "in the right place at the right time" during several key historical stages:

• 16th–17th Centuries (Military): The expansion of the British Empire spread the language through colonial rule.
• 18th–19th Centuries (Science/Industry): The Industrial Revolution made English the language of innovation and technology.
• 20th Century–Present (Economic/Cultural): The rise of the USA as a global superpower cemented English as the language of international trade, finance, advertising, and popular culture (music, movies, and the Internet).

The numbers shift

Today, there are roughly 1.5 billion total users of English. Importantly, L2 (second language) speakers (1.1 billion) vastly outnumber L1 (native) speakers (390 million). This means the "norms" of the language are shifting away from a single British or American standard toward a focus on intelligibility (being understood).

2. Defining a language: From geography to speech communities

Can we define a language by "mutual intelligibility" (the idea that two speakers of the same language must understand each other)? Not necessarily. As your notes highlight, a person from the UK might struggle to understand a specific dialect from another region.

Because geographical location or simple understanding aren't enough to define "English," linguists use the concept of a Speech Community.

• Definition: A group of people who share the same language and rules for using it.
• Variation: Even within a community, people speak differently based on several factors:
• Age: Slang used by young people.
• Social Class & Education: Professional terminology or formal vs. informal styles.
• Gender & Ethnicity: Specific linguistic markers associated with identity.
• Idiolect: The unique way an individual speaks, which changes depending on the context (e.g., speaking to a boss vs. a friend).

3. Language change: Speed and structure

Languages are constantly evolving, but different parts change at different speeds:

• Vocabulary (Fastest): New words are created constantly to describe new inventions or cultural trends (e.g., Internet slang).
• Pronunciation (Slowest): It takes centuries for the way people pronounce sounds to shift significantly.

4. Pros and cons of a global language

According to linguist David Crystal, having one global language has both benefits and risks:

Pros

• Access: Easier access to global research, education, and jobs;
• Coordination: A shared "code" for international safety (Aviation/Maritime);
• Mobility: Facilitates international travel and communication.

Cons

• Linguistic Power: Native speakers may have an unfair advantage in business or hiring;
• Linguistic Complacency: Native English speakers may feel they don't need to learn other languages;
• Linguistic Death: Pressure on minority languages, potentially leading to the loss of native vocabulary and culture.

5. Spoken vs. Written English

Your notes mention a specific linguistic feature called Premodification. This is common in English, where we build complex phrases by adding adjectives or descriptions before the noun.

• Example: "Jim is a 12-year-old, blue-eyed boy".

This allows for concise communication, which is useful in journalism and technical writing.

Summary of key terms

• Lingua Franca: A "contact language" used for communication between people who do not share a native language.
• Proficiency: A high level of skill in the language, often more important when interacting with native speakers.
• Cultural Capital: English is seen as a "commodity" or tool that grants access to global goods and social mobility.

PDF 3: Linguistic variation and the critical distinction between Standard English (grammar/vocabulary) and Received Pronunciation (accent)

1. Types of linguistic variation

Linguistics studies how language changes across different dimensions. We categorize these variations into two main groups: Synchronic (at the same time) and Diachronic (over history).

Dimensions of synchronic variation

• Diatopic (Place): Variation based on geographical location (e.g., British vs. American English).
• Diastratic (Social Class): Variation based on the speaker's social background or class.
• Diaphasic (Situation): Variation based on the context, such as formal or informal registers.
• Diamesic (Medium): Variation based on the channel of communication, specifically Spoken vs. Written English.

2. Dialect vs. Accent

It is vital to distinguish these two terms because they are often confused in everyday speech.

• Dialect: A variety of language that includes specific vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. It describes what words you use and how you put them together.
• Accent: Refers only to pronunciation. It identifies a speaker's regional or social background based solely on how they sound.

Key Takeaway: Everyone has an accent because everyone has a way of pronouncing words. Accents differ not just in sound, but in the set of phonemes (sounds) used and where they are placed in a word.

3. Standard English (SE)

Standard English is the variety characterized by specific idioms, vocabulary, and grammar regarded as "correct" by educated native speakers.

• Scope: It refers to grammar and vocabulary, NOT pronunciation.
• Context: It is the dialect of the "professional class," used in formal writing, education, and broadcasting.
• Social Dialect: It is a purely social dialect, not a geographical one, spoken natively by about 10% of the population in the UK.
• Flexibility: You can speak