English linguistics for tourism and commerce, Lingua inglese 3

Lezione 3 marzo

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x esame:

1 appello → prima del 6 giugno (scrivere su foglio chi si laurea per correzione giorno dopo)

2 appello → verso fine giugno

3 appello → seconda metà di luglio

ULTIMA LEZIONE MARTEDÌ 12 MAGGIO (mock test)

x esame: sapere il voto del C1

PRAGMATICS: AN INTRODUCTION

A brief premise:

Linguistic

It is considered the study of the human language

It is divided in:

-​ Grammar: language structure

-​ Morphology: formation and composition of words

-​ Syntax: the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words

-​ Phonology: sound system

-​ Phonetics: properties of speech sounds, non-speech sounds, and how they are

produced and perceived

-​ Semantics: meaning of words and concepts

-​ Pragmatics.

Morphological approach: Syntactic approach:

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Semantic approach: Phonetic approach:

​ ​ ​ əneləfəntnevəfəgets

An elephant never forgets

​ ​ ​ ən 'elɪfənt 'nevə(r) fə'gets

What is pragmatics?

The origins of pragmatics date back in the past fifty years, when an increasing interest in

Pragmatics and pragmatic issues began to grow.

Why has pragmatics become so popular in the last decades?

- In the late 1960s – early 1970s: collapse of earlier linguistic theories and certainties.

Previous theories developed by illustrious linguists, such as Chomsky’s, were put under

discussion.

- Basis of Chomsky’s theories: SYNTAX, a syntax-only approach.

Why were these theories partially rejected?

Linguists and philosophers recognised the fact that there were several linguistic issues

that remained totally unexplained.

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

They started questioning:

•​ fixed concepts of syntax and semantics

•​ the relationship between logic and language

•​ extralinguistic > < linguistic factors

•​ relation between speakers and contexts

developing an increasing interest in pragmatics.

There was a shift from the fixed assumptions of a theoretical grammar (syntax) to an

increasing interest in language users.

Traditional approach: Pragmatic approach:

Analysis of the language Analysis concentrates

often focuses on words, on language used by

phrases, the structure of human beings and the

sentences and the way in way in which they use

which users build it.

sentences. Interest in the process

Interest in of producing language

and in its producers

the end product

First definitions of pragmatics

1.​ Charles Morris (1938): “the study of the relation of signs and interpreters”

2.​ Jerrold Katz (1977): “grammars are theories about structure of sentence type […]

Pragmatic theories, in contrast, […] explicate the reasoning of speakers and

hearers”

3.​ Stephen Levingson (1983): “the study of those relations between language and

context that are grammaticalized or encoded in the structure of a language”

N. Chomsky would have called this new science “the study of performance”, so the way in

which humans use language, the way in which they choose to use language and the way in

which they interact with each other.

▶​ David Crystal (1997): pragmatics is the study of language from the point of view of

users, especially of the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using

language in social interaction and the effects their use of language has on other

participants in the act of communication

▶​ Verschueren (1999): pragmatics is a general cognitive, social, and cultural perspective

on linguistic phenomena in relation to their usage in forms o behavior.

▶​ Mey (2001): pragmatics wastebasket is more like a can of worms: the problem is the

basket tends to spill over into all the domains of linguistic thinking. Instead of making

linguistics neat and clean, in the best logical or mathematical style, the wastebasket

imposes its unruly order on our explanations.

Considering these definitions some questions remain open:

-​ What are the limits of grammar/syntax and pragmatics?

-​ What is the role of pragmatics in the fields of neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics,

sociolinguistics and ethnolinguistics?

-​ What is the role of pragmatics in the fields of applied linguistics and discourse

analysis?

How can pragmatics co-habit with traditional theories?

As Mey (2001) wonders:

How can linguists divide the linguistic pie and, once cut up,

where should individual pieces go?

First approach:

Component view:

- Grammar consists of several components

- These components correspond to different

human abilities that can be recognized

in the human brain

- Human faculties are independent

but cooperating units

- Every human faculty is taken into account

by a different discipline (grammar, phonology …)

Second approach:

Perspective view:

- Clear borderlines are rejected

- It focuses on all those factors that make a

certain language use more or less acceptable.

- It focuses on language users and the way they

use their language

- It takes into account several disciplines

(psycho- sociolinguistics…)

So, what is the aim of pragmatics?

Pragmatics is needed if we want a fuller, deeper and generally more reasonable

account of human language behaviour.

Through a pragmatic analysis we avoid «ambiguity»

A: «I just met an old Irishman and his son, coming out of the toilet»

B: «I wouldn’t have thought there was room for the two men»

A: «No silly, I mean, I was coming out of the toilet. They were waiting»

How can we avoid ambiguity?

Remember that:

Among real speakers, i.e. in authentic communicative situations, ambiguity does not exist;

Ambiguity appears when sentences uttered by the speaker are not within the context;

Sentences can be ambiguous, real speakers are not.

Lezione 6 marzo

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New topic (new PowerPoint)

GRICE’S MAXIMS OF CONVERSATION

In order to start considering the pragmatic analysis, it is necessary to take into account

other two principles that can be considered at the base of every communicative process:

-​ COMMUNICATIVE PRINCIPLE (see Mey 2001, 68)

-​ COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE (Grice 1975, 1989)

Communicative principle: Cooperative principle:

▶​ It represents speakers’ ▶​ It represents speakers’

and hearers’ will to and hearers’ intention to

interact with each other. cooperate in order to

▶​ People want to talk with build a speech event.

the intention to

communicate something ▶ Communication requires

to somebody. people to cooperate.

▶​ THIS IS THE ▶​ Conversations can

FONDATION OF develop only if both

LINGUISTIC speakers and hearers

BEHAVIOR (no matter want to take actively part

how one may try, one

cannot communicate) in the process.

▶​ Cooperation is an essential

factor in communication, in

other words, it is the

expectation that the listener

Cooperative principle: has toward the speaker.

According to Grice:

“make your contribution such as required, at the

stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which

they are engaged”.

Grice identifies as guidelines of the Cooperative Principle four basic maxims of conversation.

These maxims specify what participants have to do in order to converse in a maximally

efficient, rational and cooperative way.

Grice's Maxims are minimal agreements that are needed to interact.

Participants of a communicative process should:

1.​ Speak Clearly

2.​ Speak Relevantly

3.​ Be Sincere

4.​ Provide Sufficient Information

Maxims of conversation:

1.​ The Maxim of Quantity

2.​ The Maxim of Quality

3.​ The Maxim of Relation

4.​ The Maxim of Manner

The Maxim of Quantity

The Maxim of Quantity relates to the amount of information provided in conversations.

Grice proposes this maxim as an explanation for a certain kind of regularity in

conversational behavior with respect to the amount of information provided in each turn

of a conversation.

▶​ Make your contribution as informative as required

▶​ Do not make your contribution more informative that is required

= make your contribution as informative as required for the purpose of exchange

A person that is listening to this

conversation finds it normal

because the maxim is observed.

Given the purpose of the conversation,

the man contributes only as much

information as is required.

– not excessive like “it’s 9:30 at

night, Greenwich Mean Time, 20

May 2009, …”

- not inadequate like, “it’s night time”.

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A person that is listening to this

conversation finds Tim’s behaviour

weird because the maxim is

violated.

Given the purpose of the conversation,

less information is provided than is

required.

Answers expected:

Yes, Ben’s number is XXXX

Yes, I’ll check on my phone and I’ll text

you.

The maxim of quality

The Maxim of Quality requires information provided in conversations to be genuine and

justified.

Grice proposes this maxim as an explanation for a certain kind of regularity in

conversational behavior with respect to the authenticity of information provided at each

turn of a conversation.

▶​ Do not say what you believe to be false

▶​ Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence

= try to make your contribution one that is true A person that is listening to this

conversation finds it normal

because the maxim is observed.

Given the purpose of the

conversation, Jim does not

contribute what he believes to be

false and to be unsubstantiated.

Untrue: It’s in Paris.

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A person that is listening to this

conversation finds Tim’s

behaviour weird because the

maxim is violated.

Given the purpose of the

conversation, Tim says something

that

evidently she does not believe in (i.e.

she told a lie).

Answers expected:

I do not like this novel

I only appreciated the mail

character.

The maxim of relation/relevance

Grice proposes this maxim as an explanation for a certain kind of regularity in

conversational behavior with respect to the relevance of information provided at each turn

of a conversation.

▶ Make your contribution relevant

Relation: (pertinent to context)

Abrupt changes in topics, for example, we're gossiping about a mutual friend and I say, after

a moment of silence, "Nice weather." A person that is listening to this

conversation finds it normal

because the maxim is observed.

Given the purpose of the

conversation, the man contributes

what is relevant for the purpose

of the conversation.

– not irrelevant like “I like steak

very much” or “What nice

weather!”

A person that is listening to

this conversation finds Tim’s

behaviour weird because

the maxim is violated.

Given the purpose of the

conversation, Tim’s contribution is

irrelevant for the purpose of the

conversation.

Answers expected:

-​ It’s a good idea! Let’s go!

-​ Sorry, but I have to study

tonight

The Maxim of Manner

The Maxim of Manner is related to how something is being said in the conversation.

Grice proposes this maxim as an explanation for a certain kind of regularity in conversational

behavior with respect to the way information is provided at each turn of a conversation.

▶​ Avoid obscurity

▶​ Avoid ambiguity

▶​ Be brief

▶​ Be orderly

= be perspicuous A person that is listening to this

conversation finds it normal

because the maxim is observed.

Given the purpose of the conversation,

information is given following a specific

logic order.

A person that is listening to

this conversation finds Tim’s

behaviour weird.

because the maxim is

violated.

Given the purpose of the

conversation, information given

are not logically presented.

Additional maxims theorized by other (not by Grice)

Politeness maxim (Bach & Harnish)

▶ speaker must not be offensive, vulgar, rude, etc.

Morality maxim (Bach & Harnish)

▶ speaker doesn't repeat, ask for privileged information, do

thing "ought not to", etc.

= behave and develop communicative exchanges following moral parameters of the

socio-cultural background in which speakers are acting.

Reasons for violation:

▶​ If someone wants to deceive the listener

▶​ If someone does not want to answer/ give information requested

▶​ To produce sarcasm and irony

▶​ Intercultural differences

If maxims are violated implicatures: to fill the conversational gap.

Grundy (2000) states that whenever a maxim is flouted there must be an implicature to

save the utterance from simply appearing to be a faulty contribution to a conversation.

Lezione 10 marzo

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Violation of Maxims

When a maxim is violated, meanings are affected IMPLICATURE

Listeners search for an explanation to account for the violation Violation illustrates:

-​ that we take maxims seriously

-​ that we can mean more than we actually say

-​ It’s how we can say things without really saying them

-​ syntactic and semantic rules are not enough to explain how sentences convey

meaning

-​ When violated we assume the person could have fulfilled maxim but choose not to,

hence look for a reason A person that is listening to this

conversation finds Tim’s

behaviour weird because the

maxim of quantity is flouted.

Given the purpose of the conversation, more information is provided than is required.

Implicature: Sue is a kind of ‘on time’ person Sue always comes at two o’clock.

A person that is listening to this

conversation finds Tim’s

behaviour weird because the

maxim of quantity is flouted.

Given the purpose of the conversation, its implicature occurs when your contribution one

that is untrue or lacks adequate evidence. Tim flouts the maxim since he gives an insincere

answer for the woman's question.

Implicature:​ Tim doesn't know exactly about the Capital City of Spain.

A person that is listening to this

conversation finds Tim’s

behaviour weird because the

maxim of quantity is flouted.

Given the purpose of the conversation, its implicature arises when the speaker deviates from

the particular topic being asked and discussed.

Implicature: The son tries to direct his mother’s concern away from the question which he

does not like.

EXERCISES

Part 1 – Warm-up

Match each maxim with its meaning:

Quantity Be clear and orderly

Quality Be truthful

Relation (Relevance) Be relevant

Manner The right amount of information

Part 2 – Identify the Maxim

For each dialogue:

a) Which maxim is violated?

b) What is the implied meaning?

Dialogue 1

Guest: Is breakfast included in the room price?

Staff: We offer a wide variety of breakfast options in our restaurant.

Maxim violated: ___quantity____ because the staff doesn’t say “yes” or “no”. Quality isn’t

violated because the staff says the truth, that they have many options for breakfast.

Implied meaning: ______probably breakfast isn’t included in the price, or the staff is avoiding a

yes/no answer____

Dialogue 2

Customer: Is the hotel close to the city centre?

Receptionist: Well… it depends on what you mean by 'close.'

Maxim violated: __manner________

Implied meaning: _____the hotel is likely not very close, but the speaker avoids being direct_____

Dialogue 3

Guest: The room was very noisy.

Hotel reply: Thank you for your feedback. We always aim to provide excellent service.

Maxim violated: ___relation (relevance)_______

Implied meaning: _______the hotel avoids addressing the complaint directly_____

Dialogue 4

Customer: Is there free parking?

Staff: We have parking facilities available for our guests.

Maxim violated: ____quantity______

Implied meaning: ____parking probably is not free, ma l’informazione viene omessa____

Part 3 – Promotional text analysis

Read the sentence:

Discover our exclusive location and enjoy a unique, unforgettable experience.

1. Which maxim is potentially violated? ___quality or quantity (quality because in the

promotive language the use of adjectives does not represent reality, we have a great

presentation of the location, but using words like “unique” and “unforgettable” you are

maximising the idea, with a personal subjective point of view, and these informations are

vague and unverifiable; quantity because you are giving much description than

required)_______

2. Why? ___________quality because in the promotive language the use of adjectives does not

represent reality, we have a great presentation of the location, but using words like “unique”

and “unforgettable” you are maximising the idea, with a personal subjective point of view, and

these informations are vague and unverifiable; quantity because you are giving much

description than required____________________________________________________

3. What does the business want the customer to believe?

____That the experience will be special and worth booking — even without concrete

.

evidence ____

Part 2 – Spot the Maxims

1. Which maxim is mainly violated?

Circle one: Quantity / Quality / Relation / Manner

Explain why: