Riassunto esame Lingua e linguistica inglese, Prof. Luporini Antonella, libro consigliato Introducing functional linguistic, Geoff Thompson

Linguistics and the application of scientific methods

Linguistics is applying the scientific method to the study of a language, which implies going beyond our intuition. While intuition is useful, using our notions and tools allows us to work on it better. Sketch Engine is a tool needed to study a corpus (corpora). Collections of texts in electronic format (PDF; Word) are machine-readable forms; they can be queried using specific software, functioning like a database.

Example of verb usage

For instance, the verb aim followed by "at" is mainly used as a past participle. The verb aim followed by "to" is mainly used in the active form using the present.

The role of linguistics

Linguistics helps us understand how a language functions. We study Systemic Functional Linguistics > Functional Grammar. It focuses on languages in use, unlike other approaches that focused on past languages or on sentence construction rules. It is a functional and descriptive approach. As a theory of language, SFL is centered around the notion of language functions and aims to describe them, especially by working on real texts.

SFL orientation

SFL is oriented towards semantics (relation between sign and meaning) = (the meaning and how it is realized in text). The unit of analysis is the sentence in formal grammar and a whole text in functional grammar. A text is not necessarily written but can be oral as well. It doesn’t need to be long; some texts are long others are shorter. A text is a coherent and cohesive instance of language that has a meaning, an instance of language having meaning in its context.

Systemic Functional Linguistics

The various parts of a text are connected between themselves. Analysis wants to describe, not to find rules. SFL is a wider approach to language than functional grammar for various reasons:

• Empowering: Because it is an approach, it can help us understand how language functions.
• Applicable: Because it is an approach, it can be used to talk about real-world problems & issues.

Applications of SFL

• Discourse analysis (e.g., critical analysis of media discourse, including social media, political discourse, advertising, etc.)
• Stylistics (studying the particular style of texts, e.g., literary stylistics; ecostylistics: the stylistic examination of environmental themes in different text-types)
• Translation studies
• Foreign language teaching and learning; literacy development

Context in linguistics

The context is the social and cultural setting in which language takes place. Context of culture comprehends the context of situation. The first deals with general notions and culture, beliefs, and customs of a specific tradition. The second is a specific setting that takes place against the wider context.

Context of culture and situation

The idea of context of culture and situation was introduced by an anthropologist. Context of situation (here and now) comprehends language/text; the system of every language is structured this way:

• Semantic: Systems of meanings that become visible in words
• Lexicogrammar: Systems of wordings, combining words and phrases to create texts that are realized of sounds and symbols
• Phonology/Graphology: Systems of symbols and sounds

The context of situation variables

The context of situation has three variables:

• Field: What is going on? Social activity and subject matter, what is the communication about
• Tenor: Who’s taking part? Participants in social roles = our social status, who we are, and what we do in society, may change but takes quite a long time and discourse roles = who’s speaking to whom, can change in the course of the discourse
• Mode: What is the role of language? Channel of communication, it can be sound waves moving through the air, graphic channel, or a mixture of the two. Medium of communication = degrees of spoken-ness and written-ness = there are texts that make you use the oral channel that present features typical of the written language (forecast, news); an oral text that makes us think about a written text (people telling the news orally usually read a text in the meantime); at the same time there are written texts that have features more typical of the spoken language in terms of structure, words, etc. (chat texts). Other features like monologue or dialogue, spontaneous or prepared.

Functions of language

The three sides of the context of situation correspond to three kinds of meaning = three main functions of language (meaning and function are equivalent terms):

• Ideational Function: We use language to express something that is happening outside the language, to talk about our experience of the world. Divided into experimental and logical. It’s influenced and linked to the field of discourse.
• Interpersonal Function: We use language to interact with other people, linked to the tenor of discourse.
• Textual Function: Linked to the mode of discourse, we organize our text in ways that it is coherent and cohesive.

Unit 2: Analysis of sentences

Identify clauses and divide them into smaller portions. Adding a ranking scale for different levels. Quote from Thompson: “In the present chapter I want to turn to some more concrete preliminaries: the ways in which we can split up the sentence (clause) into parts, so that we can later go on to look at the particular functions each part serves.” A sentence can be composed of smaller clauses = units of grammatical analyses. Some clauses are also sentences but not always since a sentence is a unit of writing beginning with a capital letter and ending with a full stop.

The rank scale

The English language is structured like a Chinese box. There are larger units made of smaller units. They can be put on a rank scale:

• Clause: A small portion including at least one verb (one clause one sentence) ⟶ ›Honestly, it's not for everyone’
• Groups and phrases: Our way to split up the large portions. There are some groups composed of one word where you can add some other words and not change the structure. ⟶ ›Honestly – it – 's not – for everyone ‹
• Words: Single words that compose a phrase or a group ⟶ ›Honestly – it – 's – not – for – everyone ‹
• Morphemes: The smallest part of language having meaning. Morphemes have a meaning in a grammatical view, singular to plural; free morphemes can stand alone (s;ly; ing) bound morphemes cannot be alone, they need to be attached to another morpheme (honest)

Clause combination and nominal groups

Clause conation, overlapping ⟶ Honestly – it – 's – not – for – everyone ⟶ NG nominal groups are centered around a noun or pronoun. Even when the noun group includes only one noun because there’s the possibility to expand it.

VG verbal groups are centered around a verb. Combination of verbs. AG adverbial groups are centered on adverbs, can be one because they can be expanded. PP prepositional phrases consist of a preposition + a NG. Groups and clauses can be combined to form complexes.

Nominal group complex

Cranes and humans go to Nebraska = nominal group complex. Cranes and humans are two nouns linked by the conjugation "and" in a nominal group complex with the same status = they are equal. Clause complex = clause+clause. Clause n.2 explains the reason for clause n.1.

NG nominal group. They are very important and productive structures in English. They can become very long and complex. They are organized in what the thing is about. Optionally there are one or more premodifiers or post modifiers before or after the noun that is the head of the thing. These are functional labels. Premodifiers are determiners, cardinal or ordinal numbers, qualifying adjectives, nouns; post-modifiers are embedded PP or clauses.

Pre-modifiers and post-modification

Pre-modifiers have different functions:

• Deictic: Possessives, articles, indicate which thing we are talking about and if the thing is a specific one or a general one, if the thing is close to the speaker and about the owner of the thing. Example: guide = thing, MY guide = premodifier deictic
• Numerative: Realized by number, indicate how many things are involved. Example: Two guides, the first guide
• Epithet: Taken on adjectives, describe the thing and its qualities that can be objectives or subjectives. Example: A detailed guide; the green guide
• Classifiers: Specify the class to which the thing belongs. It is not describing but indicates a subclass. Example: Tanzania guide; Scotland travel guide. If there’s a noun before the premodifier then it’s a classifier. Classifiers don’t accept comparatives and degrees of comparison.

Logical has pre or post modification Ethical has deictic, numerate, classifier, or epithet.

Post-modification: Embedded PP. To embed has to do with fixing the noun group,” Everything you need to know to plan the trip of a lifetime.” - You need to know = relative clause that defines the meaning of the part before of the sentence, if you take off the relative the meaning of all changes < embedded clause. "Of a lifetime" = embedded prepositional clause.

Qualifiers = Post-modifiers are called embedded PP or clauses that provide more information about the thing and cannot be taken off without changing the meaning. Non-embedded prepositional phrases are complements, which means that can be moved in the phrases. Embedded PP that are qualifiers, are not necessary but change the meaning of the clause.