Riassunto esame Inglese per la comunicazione, Prof. Mc Namara Coyne Rachel, libro consigliato Media Studies: texts, production, context (3rd ed.), Long, Johnson, MacDonalds, Bader, Wall, Baker, McStay

Inglese per la comunicazione - english for communication

Obligatory chapters - book ”Long and Wall, Media Studies: Texts, Production, Context, Routledg”: 1, 3, 6, 13

Lesson 1: ENGLISH AS KISS STYLE

English is considerated as a Lingua Franca = ELF is a “contact language” between persons who share

neither a common native tongue nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen

foreign language of communication

English is used as a lingua franca in:

-The UN, the EU

-The G20

-Social Media

-Film & Music Industries

-Radio and Television

-Business & Finance

KISS: KEEP IT SHORT AND SIMPLE

- Kiss texts are readerly

- Favours short sentences and precise, simple language

- Favours a concise, direct style and coordination, not subordination

≠ KILC: KEEP IT LONG AND COMPLEX

- KILC texts focus more on the writer

- Complex sentence structure and lexis. Idea that lengthy, dense texts = authority

- Favours indirect, implicit style

---->English is a KISS language. Cultures tend to express themselves in different ways, both orally and in

writing. Writing styles reflect different ways of thinking, and hence must be respected. Nevertheless,

when conveying information, content is the priority in the message, which must be clear, unambiguous

and direct.

The main rules for a KISS style are:

1. Use the SVO sentence structure (=Subject Verb Object). Avoid preambles and long introductions.

2. Use short sentences (about 20 words in a sentence is a good average).

3. One sentence should convey one idea.

4. Use full stops.

5. Use bullet points for lists instead of commas.

6. Start a new paragraph when shifting from one concept to another.

7. Use an informal register (i.e.: carry out instead of important, needs instead of requirements).

8. Use active instead of passive verb forms (i.e.: you will have to instead of it will be required to).

9. Be personal: make the subject explicit (i.e.: you can/could instead of it is possible to).

10. Use verbal style (whenever possible, use verbs instead of nouns, i.e.: we are reviewing the content

instead of the content is under review).

11. Use repetitions (use the same word to refer to a concept, instead of using many different words that

could be confusing).

12. Be reader-oriented (focus on the reader and not on the writer).

13. Use short linking words (i.e.:by instead of by means of, concerning instead of having regard to, if

instead of in the event of).

|Media’ = plural of ‘medium’ SO We should say/write: Media have …, Media are …|

Linguistic features of BLOGS:

• Subject ellipsis

• Omission of auxiliary verbs (or other function words)

• Deviant spelling, (e.g.: Gr8! => Great! - CU nxt time! => See you next time!)

• Contracted forms, e.g.: I’m, I haven’t, etc.

• Use of CAPITAL letters to indicate shouting, e.g.: WOW

• Beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction

• Key words in sentence initial position (i.e. subject position)

• Replacing a word by a number, e.g.: ten minutes => 10 mins

• Omission of punctuation

• Use of rhetorical devices (word play, alliteration, assonance, intertextuality, metaphors)

• Preference for phrasal verbs and present tense verb forms

What are Blogs?: a regularly updated website or web page, typically one run by an individual or small group,

They offer users the ability to communicate with the

that is written in an informal or conversational style.

individual author and engage in discussion based around specific topics

Lesson 2: HOW DO MEDIA MAKE MEANING?

Rhetoric: is the construction and manipulation of language by the creator of a text for affective

purposes.

Media Rhetoric: is a series of production techniques through which texts are ‘meaningful’

– The purpose to ‘position’ audiences in particular ways

– Modern media are involved in a complex and sophisticated activity of social/cultural communication

– Media do not simply reflect the world in some straightforward manner, operating as transmitters of

information-based messages

--->We live in a ‘global village’

– Communications have reduced traditional limits of space and time across the globe

– the global and the local are inevitably linked. Mass media have contributed extensively to the

establishment of these social and cultural interconnections

“The medium is the message” (McLuhan 1964)

– A mere conduit for communication?

– Form and Dimension contribute to the overall meaning

– Because of media forms we live, think and communicate differently from those generations who came

before these forms

Gimmicks and Rhetorical Devices

-Gimmicks or ‘Puns’: are well-known strategies that play on the creation of ambiguity (a play on

alternative meanings) where a second meaning is implied ---> They rely on intertextuality, that is shared

knowledge of cultural experience and values

-Rhetorical devices, or communication tools, are used to convey a point and persuade an

audience/leadership

▪ Euphemism —> the substitution of more acceptable terms for those that might offend or upset some

people. Ex:

▪ Metonymy —> refers to a part of something used to represent it as a whole (ex. ‘Westmister’ is a

reference to British Parliament)

▪ Ellipses —> the omission of data, usually of what we take to be obvious. It is often written as a row of

three dots (…)

▪ Alliteration —> the repetition of starting letters of words in a phrase or sentence (ex. repetition of the

consonant sound at the beginning of word)

▪ Metaphor —> the substitution of one idea for another (not to be confused with simile) Ex: Alliteration

& metaphor:

INTERTEXTUALITY:

• Rhyme or a play on the words of a well-known song

• Pun on P.M.’s name

• Language is colloquial “dude” “Boris” “Jez”

PUNS = Play on Words:

• Hooks the reader

• Playful = entertaining, also memorable. Posivite or negative

SEMIOLOGY : ‘the study of signs’

= the study of meaning and the different systems that make meaning possible. Meaning is not to be

found in the text alone, or in the mind of the person reading the text, but in the interaction between text

and reader

Remember: Semiology seeks to identify the factors that contribute to the way in which meaning is made

in the act of mediation – how the content of media messages mean what they do

The SIGN: is the basic unit of communication systems

consists of two indivisible aspects ---> signifier and signified

➢

a SIGN = SIGNIFIER + SIGNIFIED

-SIGNIFIER: refers to the physical properties or aspects of a sign that lead them to be perceived in some

way (words, images, etc.)

-SIGNIFIED: refers to the conceptual aspect of the sign – the idea(s) conjured up by our perception of

the signifier

Remember: The apparent arbitrariness of language within systems of signification => It operates thanks

to socio-cultural conventions

DENOTATION and CONNOTATION

-Denotation: the initial aspect of signification (literal/primary meaning)

-Connotation: the abstract meaning that triggers further associations (multiple interpretations

determined by a variety of different elements) (Roland Barthes)

-Codes – Encoding and Decoding: different interpretations of the same text are possible (Stuart Hall,

Umberto Eco)

Media texts, being the complex things they are, offer many opportunities for polysemia (‘many readings’)

MEDIA SIGNS They are subject to processes of selection and combination

The Organization of Signs in Texts:

▪ the combination impacts on the connotations of a text and can have a range of effects on the

interpretation of signs

▪ the combination of signs can challenge the associations we make

▪ meanings are subject to challenge + signs might have a different meaning for different readers

(Valentin Volosinov)

-What is a CASE STUDY? = An close-up examination of a subject of study and its related contextual

conditions

▪ Illustrates a theory or principle

▪ Structure: begins with background and context; explains examples and different points of view; finally,

sums up main ideas and discusses implications

▪ Includes references

• Case studies are used in research in the social sciences => ‘Key Text’

• They are used by business, marketing, communications and brand strategy professionals

In media studies programmes in universities in the UK, the US and Australia, students often need to write

them => Useful for future studies

HOUSE STYLE

A definition= “The expression house style refers to the specific usage and editing conventions

followed by writers and editors to ensure stylistic consistency in a particular publication or series of

publications (newspapers, magazines, journals, websites, books)”

House-style guides (also known as style sheets or style books) typically provide rules on such matters as

abbreviations, capital letters, numbers, date formats, citations, spelling and terms of address

Lesson 3: MEDIA REPRESENTATION

▪To represent something means to describe it or depict it

▪ To represent also means to symbolise, to be a specimen of or to substitute for

▪ Re-present also means to present again

▪ All representations are ‘selective abstractions’ of a messy reality and are worthy of investigation due to

their distinct link to social contexts

▪ Any form of representation can never provide a full picture or understanding of what is being re-

presented

STEREOTYPES and ARCHETYPE

▪ An archetype is a ‘perfect’ or idealised person or thing that exhibits certain core values and

identities that offer a model or pattern for the way in which cultures are viewed.

▪ Stereotypes are, instead, a form of shorthand, reducing the complexity of an individual, group or

situation to a familiar and quickly understood and defining set of attributes.

---> Why are they important?

• Enable media producer to quickly construct representations in a way that its audience can easily

understand

• They reflect shared cultural ideas of the majority

• Can be positive or negative

• Remember: they are constructed and not natural

• They work because they are based on a ‘grain of truth’ so even when they are distorted or exaggerated

for some purpose, they are not wholly false

• Allows mainstream media to manufacture consent by shaping our ideas about almost everything

Popular ideologies in mainstream media

Society & people are:

▪ Slightly conservative

▪ Pro individual

▪ Pro traditional family structure

▪ Supportive of government

▪ Supportive of democracy

▪ Pro work

▪ Hetero-normative

Socio-Cultural Categories of Reference

Gender, Sexuality, Ethnicity, Race, Membership of Religion, Social class, Age, Disability, Illness; mental

illness in-group v out-group

▪ Dominant culture v minority group or less powerful group

▪ Out-group is represented as inferior to the In-group

Gender & Representation

▪ Gender refers to the cultural nature of the differences between the natural biological sexes of male

and female

▪ The ‘performances’ of gender we see in media are perceived as ‘natural’ because they are common:

they are accepted by the majority of producers and viewers

Sexuality & Representation

▪ Sexuality is not a thing of ‘biology’ here but is understood as socially and culturally constituted –

its historical and geographical variety and change over time suggests as much

▪ Heteronormativity can be defined as the practices (and this would include representational

practices), “that legitimize and privilege heterosexuality and heterosexual relationships as fundamental

and “natural” within society” (Cathy J. Cohen)

-CELEBRITIES, PERSONALITIES AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE IMAGE

REPRESENTATIONS OF INDIVIDUALITY - Stars, Personalities, Celebrities

It is often said that we live in a “celebrity culture”. Media stars must be understood primarily as

commodities ‘produced’ by media companies for consumption by audiences that will lead to profit

Actors become stars when their off-screen lifestyles and personalities equal or surpass acting ability in

importance’ (Gledhill, 1991)

It now seems that one no longer has to be famous for something at all – one can just ‘be’ a celebrity

Stars as Texts and Signs

▪ All that we know of the star is their image

▪ We must analyse stars not as real people but as signs and texts

How do we know that stars are signs?

▪ Individuals have accrued meaning – both denotatively and connotatively – that is deployed in each

media text, just as they assume roles and meanings in their performance in those texts. In other words,

they can be considered to be signs

Construction of the Image

A star’s image is made out of a range of primary and secondary elements:

➢

▪ Primary elements in the construction of any image – the primary texts – are the films, videos, songs,

TV programmes and so on of a star’s portfolio

▪ Secondary materials (e.g., posters, badges, T- shirts, web pages) consist of those generated by the

process of promotion and the deliberate textual construction of record companies, flm studios, PR

departments or fan clubs. In addition, there is also ‘publicity’, i.e. material that is not – or doesn’t seem to

be – the result of deliberate manipulation or occasionally intention

Stars are important identification figures for consumers

➢

▪ On the one hand a star must be ‘typical’ in some way. On the other hand, if the star is too ordinary,

they are no longer special enough to be a star

What Stardom Represents?

▪ The elevation of stars and celebrities tells us a great deal about society and how media are

regarded and understood

Whether in front of or behind the scenes, the rhetoric and language of media forms ‘disguises’ the

collaborative process in its foregrounding and privileging of such individuals as part of a hierarchy.

This is supported by a whole range of structures within and without media institutions

▪ The validation of the individual in society in general

Of all the pop stars, news reporters, actors, voice- over artists, and indeed ‘celebrities’, who are

available to the media some are deemed to be more valuable than others

Lesson 4: NEW MEDIA - PRINT

2 Types of newspapers:

1.TABLOID’ In 1901 ,"tabloid journalism" originally meant a paper

or popular: (onethousandninehundredone)

that condensed stories into a simplified, easily absorbed format

Main Topics: sensational crime stories, astrology, celebrity gossip, television, etc

(middle market readership),

ex: The Daily Star, The Daily Express, The Daily Mail The Daily Mirror, The Sun,

The New York Daily News, The National Enquirer

Style: image led

• Emphasis on human interest stories (scandals, gossip, celebrities)

• Easier to read

• Vocabulary more limited

• Simple sentence structure

• Short paragraphs

• Large headlines

• Lots of images

• Less text

• Tend to be politically