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Difference between present perfect simple and present perfect continuous

We use the Present Perfect Simple when we focus on the result of the action.

E.g.: I have read 4 chapters of my new English book so far/up until now. It means that I am reading a good book at the moment.

We use the Present Perfect Continuous when we focus on the action in progress from past to now. Also to emphasize the duration of an event.

E.g.: How long have you been reading the book? I’ve been reading the book since I bought it last week (or since Wednesday/for a couple of days).

We use it also to emphasize the repetition of an event.

E.g.: I’ve been coming to this café for years.

Again, what is the difference between

• 1. I’ve written a lot of emails today.
• 2. I’ve been writing emails all day.

• 1) The focus is on the result. I have already or just written them.
• 2) The focus is on the activity. I may be still writing them.

Typical time expressions used with present perfect tense

So far/up until now For/since How long…? Recently/lately/in the last few years Already Just Yet Ever…?

Translation

• 1) Sono giorni che le telefono, ma non è mai a casa. = I’ve been calling her for days, but she’s never at home.
• 2) Non ho mai indossato la cravatta al lavoro, e mi rifiuto di iniziare adesso! = I’ve never worn a tie at work, and I refuse to start now!
• 3) È arrivata la posta stamattina? = Has the post arrived this morning?
• 4) Da quanto tempo conosci Simon? = How long have you known Simon?
• 5) Ho appena finito i compiti. Ora posso guardare la TV. = I’ve just finished my homework. Now I can watch TV.
• 6) “Perché piange la mamma?” “Ha tagliato le cipolle” = “Why is mom crying?” “She’s been cutting onions”. We use the present perfect continuous because you can now see the result of her action. Now she is crying. Come se l’azione durasse nel presente.

Modal verbs

We use certain modal auxiliary verbs to make deductions, i.e. to make guesses based on known facts.

We can make deductions about the present. E.g.: What is this?

• 1. It must be an egg.
• 2. It may/might/could be a hat.
• 3. It can’t be a dog.

E.g.: Where’s Joanna?

We use different modal auxiliary verbs depending on how strong our guess is:

• 1. She must be in the kitchen = Very sure, 99%.
• 2. She can’t be in the garden = Very sure, we think it’s impossible, 99%.
• 3. She may/might/could be in his bedroom = We think it’s possible, 50%.

To make guesses/deductions about the past > modal verb + have + past participle:

E.g.: How do you think the burglar got in?

• 1. He must have climbed through the window = Very sure, 99%.
• 2. He can’t have climbed through the window = Very sure, we think it’s impossible, 99%.
• 3. He may/might/could have climbed through the window = We think it’s possible, 50%.

When using modal auxiliary verbs of deductions, the opposites of must and must have are can’t and can’t have, not mustn’t and mustn’t have.

The passive

• We use the terms active voice and passive voice to talk about ways of organising the content of a clause: Cambridge University Press published this book. (active) This book was published by Cambridge University Press. (passive)
• The active voice is the typical word order. We put the subject (the topic or the theme) first. The subject is the ‘doer’ or agent of the verb: Edward Barnes designed these houses in the 1880s. (active)
• In the passive, the person or thing that the action was done to becomes the topic or theme. We can leave out the ‘doer’ or agent, or we can place the ‘doer’ in a prepositional phrase (by + ‘doer’): These houses were designed in the 1880s. (passive without agent) These houses were designed in the 1880s by Edward Barnes. (passive + by + agent)
• Only verbs with an object (transitive verbs) can be made passive. They sent the letter. The letter was sent (by them).
• Verbs with both the direct and indirect objects can be made passive in two ways: They sent me the letter. I was sent the letter. The letter was sent to me.

Transform the following sentences from active to passive

• 1. People present factual information visually nowadays. Factual information is presented visually nowadays.
• 2. Publishers used photos in magazines. Photos were used by publishers in magazines.
• 3. The magazine had paid him to take photos. He had been paid by the magazine to take photos.
• 4. Anyone can share stories. Stories can be shared by anyone.
• 5. They have given her permission to tell her story. She has been given permission to tell her story.
• 6. People are sharing photos online. Photos are being shared online.
• 7. People from all over the world will see them. They will be seen by people from all over the world.

Rewrite the text about infographics

Rewrite the text about infographics. Use the passive form of the verbs in bold. Make any other changes and include the agent if necessary.

In infographics, people combine data and images to communicate information. We can present the data using numbers or words. William Playfair probably created the first infographics in his book of 1786, A Commercial and Political Atlas of England. However, people have called Edward Tufte, a teacher at Princeton University, the true father of the modern infographic. He published his book Visual Display in 1982. Today, non-experts are creating infographics.

In infographics, data and images are combined to communicate information. The data can be presented using numbers or words. The first infographics were probably created by William Playfair in his book of 1786. However, Edward Tufte, a teacher at Princeton University, has been called the true father of the modern infographic. His book “Visual Display” was published in 1982. Today, infographics are being created by non-experts too, with simple web design tools.

Translation, focus on the passive

• 1. Il pranzo è servito dalle 12 alle 3 di pomeriggio = Lunch is served from 12 to 3 pm.
• 2. Le stanze sono pulite dalla Signora Smith = The (they’re specific rooms so we use the article) are cleaned by Mrs Smith.
• 3. Da chi fu costruito l’hotel? = Who was the hotel built by?
• 4. Con cosa vengono aperte le porte? = What are the doors opened with?
• 5. Di solito il formaggio viene mangiato prima del dolce = Usually cheese (or Cheese usually) is eaten before dessert.
• 6. La settimana prossima tutte le finestre dovranno essere pulite = Next week all the windows will have to be cleaned.
• 7. L’esame non deve essere stato difficile - sono stati promossi tutti = The exam can’t have been difficult - everyone passed it.

Focus on the future

• 1. We’re going to have a party.
• 2. We’re having a party. Where are you having it? We’re having it in the park.

You can use both present continuous and going to when talking about plans and arrangements in the future. They can often be used with the same meaning.

X We’re flying to Barcelona tomorrow. We booked the tickets last week > Use the present continuous (and not going to) when a formal arrangement has been made.

• 3. I’m going to study hard for my exams over the next few months > I intend to study hard in the future. (also I will be studying hard…)
• 4. I’m studying hard for my exams > I’m studying hard now.

Use going to (and not present continuous) to talk about personal intentions.

• 5. There is a cold air front coming in from the Atlantic. Temperatures are going to fall (also are likely to/will probably fall) next week.

Use going to when you make a prediction based on information in the present situation.

E.g. Look at those clouds! It’s going to rain!

Use will for spontaneous decisions.

E.g. Oh no! It’s really late. I’ll call a taxi for you!

Future perfect

Will + have + past participle.

We use it to talk about actions completed before a certain time in the future.

E.g. I will have learned to speak Arabic by 2028.

The cost will have come down in ten years’ time.

Future continuous

Will + be + present participle.

We use it to talk about an action in progress at a certain time in the future.

E.g. We will be studying English at this time tomorrow.

What will you be doing at this time next week?

Translation

Due anni fa ho fatto un viaggio in Mongolia per fotografare i famosi cavalli, che in quel paese sono molto numerosi: due per ogni abitante. La Mongolia è grande cinque volte l’Italia, con una popolazione di solo due milioni e mezzo di persone, e i cavalli sono circa 5 milioni.

Two years ago I made a trip to Mongolia to photograph the famous horses, which in that country are numerous: two for each citizen. Mongolia is five as big as Italy, with a population of only two millions and a half people, and horses are about 5 millions.

Two years ago I made a trip to Mongolia to photograph the famous horses, which are very numerous in that country: two for each citizen (inhabitant). Mongolia is five times bigger than Italy, with a population of only two and half million people, and there are about 5 million horses.

Che ce ne siano tanti lo si capisce subito, non appena usciti da Ulaan Baatar, la capitale. Era giugno, e si vedevano puledri appena nati dappertutto. Ho fatto tante bellissime foto e spero di ritornare l’anno prossimo per farne delle altre.

You immediately understand that there are a lot of them, just as you exit Ulaan Baatar, the capital. It was June, and you saw just born puledrians everywhere. I made a lot of amazing photos/pictures and I hope to get back to do some others next year.

You can see immediately that there are a lot of them, as soon as you leave Ulaan Baatar, the capital. It was June, and you could see just born (newborn) foals everywhere. I took a lot of amazing/beautiful photos/pictures and I hope to go back next year to take some more.

• 1. Sono convinto che Frank troverà un lavoro entro pochissimo tempo = I’m sure (convinced) that Frank will find a job in a very short time/really short time/no time.
• 2. Vai all’università domani o resti a casa a studiare? = Are you going to university tomorrow or are you staying (are you going to stay) at home to study? + the university > L’edificio / university > In generale studiare.
• 3. Qualunque cosa succeda io ti aiuterò quando ne avrai bisogno. = Whatever happens (no matter what happens), I’ll help you when you need it (when you need me to).
• 4. Ho saputo che parti domani, se vuoi ti accompagno all’aeroporto. = I (‘ve) heard that you are leaving tomorrow, if you want I’ll drive you to the airport (take you to/give you a lift).
• 5. Secondo le previsioni del tempo domani farà molto freddo. = According to the weather forecast (news) it is going to be very cold tomorrow.

• 1. Mi domando che cosa farà Fritz quando avrà finito di studiare = I’m wondering (I wonder) what will do Fritz when he finishes studying. > When/if/unless/before/after + present + future. È giusto usare il presente, quindi tutti i tipi di presente, anche il present perfect e il present perfect continuous + il futuro può essere qualsiasi tipo di futuro, non solo will.
• 2. Nel 2020 saranno vent’anni che John è in prigione = In 2020 (by 2020) John will have been in prison for 20 years.
• 3. Gli ospiti stanno già arrivando. Vado a dare loro il benvenuto? = The guests are already arriving (coming). Should (shall) I go welcome them?
• 4. Attento! Quei libri stanno per cadere = Careful! (watch out/look out) Those books are about to fall (are going to).
• 5. Probabilmente ci perderemo l’inizio del film = Probably we might miss the beginning of the film > Perde un po’ di significato. Meglio > We will probably miss the beginning of the film > prediction.

Error correction

• 1. I don’t think the plan is a good one. I explain > I’ll explain. È molto spontaneo.
• 2. When I’ll finish the course, I’m going to celebrate > When I finish the course, I’m going to celebrate. When + present + future.
• 3. Will they have finish by lunchtime? > Will they have finished by lunchtime?
• 4. I expect that tomorrow’s exam is difficult > I expect that tomorrow’s exam will be difficult.
• 5. This time on Monday, she’ll be start her new job > This time on Monday, she’ll be starting (will have started) her new job.

Sentence transformation

• 1. It’s ages since I spoke to Bob > I haven’t spoken to Bob for ages.
• 2. Despite the heavy rain, we went for a walk > Although it was raining heavily, we went for a walk.
• 3. No one has ever climbed this mountain > This mountain has never been climbed before.
• 4. Mary knows more Australian people than I do > I don’t know as many as Australian people as Mary.
• 5. When did you start writing poetry? > How long have you been writing poetry?
• 6. I’m sure it was the dog that ate the meat > The dog must have eaten the meat.
• 7. I got to university at 9:30 and the lesson started at 9:00 > When I got to university, the lesson had already started.
• 8. I started studying Chinese in 2019 > By 2029, I will have been studying (will have studied) Chinese for ten years.

Determiners

Grammar note:

• 1. Any is not normally used in affirmative sentences.
• 2. Either is used with singular nouns.
• 3. Each is used with singular nouns.
• 4. Some is not used with singular nouns.
• 5. You need to use ‘not’ with ‘any’ to make it negative.
• 6. ‘The whole’ is used with singular nouns.
• 7. Every is used with singular nouns.

Expression of quantity

a) The number of students in the linguistics faculty has risen over the years. It is specific.

b) A number of students (i.e. many) have enrolled for additional language course. It is generic.

+ The majority of students have attended the lessons > We use have because it is referred to students. + Most students have attended the lessons.

Translation

• 1. Ha pochi amici a Milano > He has few friends in Milan = not many.
• 2. Ha un po’ di amici a Firenze > He has a few friends in Florence = some.
• 3. C’è poco lavoro > There’s little work = not much.
• 4. Ha poca pazienza > He has little patience = not much.
• 5. Quando avrò finito, avrò un po’ di tempo da dedicarti > When I finish (have finished), I’ll have a little time to dedicate to you = some.

Translation

• 1. La maggior parte della gente non è disposta a ridurre il proprio consumo di energia elettrica > the majority of people isn’t willing to reduce its consume of electricity (?)/electric energy X > Most people/the majority of people are not willing to reduce electricity consumption.
• 2. Jane parla diverse lingue straniere > Jane speaks several foreign languages.
• 3. Abbiamo della limonata. Avete delle tazze? > We have some lemonade. Do you have any cups? (Have you got any cups?)
• 4. Abbiamo molta birra, ma non c’è molta acqua > We have a lot of beer (lots of, plenty of, loads of), but there isn’t much water.
• 5. Tu hai un po’ di tempo, ma io ne ho poco > You have a little (some, a bit of) time, but I have little (I don’t have much).
• 6. Alcuni studenti sono spesso in ritardo > A few (some) students are often late.

Rephrasing

• 1. I am less interested in politics than Tom > I am not as (so) interested in politics as Tom.
• 2. The dog was so dangerous that it had to be put down > It was such a dangerous dog that it had to be put down.
• 3. It costs much more to go abroad than it used to > Going abroad is (now) much/far more expensive than it used to be.
• 4. Pavlov experimented on animals for most of his life > Pavlov spent most of his life experimenting on animals.
• 5. Mary doesn’t like meat and Sara doesn’t either > Neither Mary nor Sara likes meat (of them likes meat).
• 6. There used to be more jobs available > There are fewer jobs available now than in the past.

Translation

Robert Hannigan, capo dell’agenzia di intelligence britannica GCHQ dal 2014 al 2017, ha scritto un articolo pubblicato ieri dal Telegraph in cui sostiene che i genitori dovrebbero lasciare che i loro figli passino più tempo davanti al computer o al cellulare perché questo aiuterà il Regno Unito ad avere più esperti di dati, informatica e computer.

Hannigan ha scritto di essere preoccupato per il basso numero di ingegneri ed esperti di informatica che ci sono oggi nel Regno Unito, e ha detto che tra vent’anni il problema sarà ancora più grave.

Robert Hannigan, head of the British intelligence agency GCHQ from 2014 to 2017, wrote an article (in an article) published yesterday by Telegraph, in which he claimed that parents should let their children spend more time on/in front of the computer or (their mobile) phones, because this will help the UK to have more experts on data, informatics and computers.

Hannigan wrote that he’s worried/he was worried (così lo riporto semplicemente, non posso sbagliare) about the low number of engineers and experts on informatics/information technology experts that there are today in the UK/in the UK today, and said that in twenty years (‘ time), the problem will be even more serious.

Prepositions

• 1. I was planning to go on a tour, but I liked Kerala so much I stayed on.
• 2. My holiday should have been for pleasure but it turned into a work trip.
• 3. The government has invested in health.
• 4. The protests went on for four days.
• 5. There are an enormous number of venues which cater for every kind of taste.

Transform

- The protests went on for four days > They went on protesting for four days (volendo si può dire anche > They had been protesting for four days/They kept protesting/They continued protesting/They carried on protesting).

a) The police intervened and then went on to arrest ten protesters > To go on to do something = next stop/proceeded to arrest.

b) They went on protesting for four days > To go on doing something = they continued protesting.

Other verbs which take both -ing and infin