Appunti lezioni di Lingua inglese

Approaches to grammar

Prescriptive vs. descriptive

Prescriptive: Establishes what can and cannot be said, learnt with grammar rules.

Descriptive: Observes pre-existing sentences (models) and offers new sentences.

Error vs. mistake

Error: Wrong acquisition of grammatical rules.

Mistake: Wrong application of grammatical rules.

Sentence structure and elements

SVOMPT: Ideal order (Subject – Verb – Object – Manner – Place – Time).

Ex. All my troubles seemed so far away yesterday.

Dummy subjects

Pronouns or expressions that can take the position of the subject.

Ex. Here comes the sun.

Anaphora vs. cataphora

Anaphora: To refer back to a word using a pronoun or other linguistic units.

Ex. In peace, sons bury their fathers. ['their' refers to 'sons']

Cataphora: To refer ahead to a word using a pronoun or other linguistic units.

Ex. You must remember this: a kiss is just a kiss. ['this' refers to 'a kiss is...']

Denotation vs. connotation

Denotation: Literal definition of a word that can be found in dictionaries.

Ex. Famous = known (neutral)

Connotation: Associations that a word may evoke.

Ex. Notorious = known (negative connotation)

According to Chomsky

Transformational generative grammar approach

Each grammatical sentence contains a complex set of operations (transformations) linked by solid constraints [language is fixed and independent].

For example, the negative form simply consists in adding NOT.

Ex. You may be right → You may NOT be right

Ex. You may use my car → You may NOT use my car

BUT the meaning is different:

• <You> MAY <NOT be right> Puoi non avere ragione
• <You> MAY NOT <use my car> Non puoi usare la macchina

Modal verbs

Epistemic modal verb: The speaker expresses a degree of certainty.

Ex. You may not be right.

Deontic modal verb: The speaker expresses a degree of permission.

Ex. You may not use my car.

Dynamic modal verb: The speaker acknowledges the natural tendency of the enactment of the dictum.

Ex. I can speak English

Modal verb strengths

• Epistemic: Must (90%), Should (80%), May (50%), Might (40%), Can't (0%)
• Deontic: Must (90%), Shall (80%), May (50%), Will Need/n't (30%)
• Dynamic: Can (50%), Could (30%)

** Naturally foreseeable : evaluation based on past experience

According to Saussure

Langue and parole

Langue: Abstract rules of a signifying system [principles of language].

Parole: Concrete use of Langue [the act of speaking].

Utterer: The speaker who performs Parole.

Co-utterer: Decoder of the message.

Utterance: Fragment of discourse with a precise communicative intent (illocutionary force).

Creation (from Langue to Parole): nominal notion + verbal notion = Dictum. Dictum + Modus.

Ex. dog + bark = the dog... bark. The dog... bark + present = the dog barks (utterance).

Modus and discourse

Modus: Communicative purpose.

Operator: Is the mark of the speaker’s communicative purpose, it shows how to interpret the connection between nominal and verbal notions – passage from Langue to Parole.

Ex. <He> <love concerts> becomes: He loveS concerts, he loveD concerts, he USED TO love...

Discourse: Utterances that make sense only in relation between them.

Locutor: Passive idealized speaker that only applies the norms of Langue [grammatical rules].

Allocutor: Passive idealized decoder/listener of the message. He does not provide any contribution to the utterance.

According to Austin

Types of acts

Every time we speak we perform three acts:

Locution: To perform sound.

Ex. ‘It’s cold in here’ I speak.

Illocution: To express the communicative purpose.

Ex. ‘It’s cold in here’ I want the window to be closed.

Perlocution: To receive feedback from the listener.

Ex. ‘It’s cold in here’ The listener closes the window (performs the action).

According to Halliday

Thematic structure

Theme: Topic of communication.

Rheme: Remaining part of the sentence – what you say about the Theme.

Thematic structure: Theme + Rheme.

Information structure: Given information + New information. The given information can be so because it has already been mentioned, or it’s in the air.

Standard utterance: The Theme is a Given information, the Rheme is New (Thematic and Information coincide). Expected.

Ex. What are you doing tomorrow? Tomorrow (Theme, Given) I’m leaving (Rheme, New)

Marked utterance: The Theme is New. Unexpected.

Ex. What are you doing tomorrow? I’m leaving (Theme, New) tomorrow (Rheme, Given)

Grammatical structure

Structure of the SVOMPT.

Nominal notion: Noun.

Focus on the nominal notion (1/3): Leave the nominal notion as it is in order to focus on the quality instead of the quantity.

Ex. Water was found in his lungs [dell’acqua] – instead of – Some water was found in his lungs [una certa quantità d’acqua]

Everything before the nominal notion (Some) is a pre-modifier.

Negating the nominal notion

He is not a doctor <Mr Briggs NOT be a doctor> Negates the verbal notion

He is no doctor <Mr Briggs ----- be [no<doctor> ]> Negates the nominal notion

He is not any doctor <Mr Briggs ------ be [NOT<any doctor>]> Negates the verbal notion

NOT negates the VERB – NO negates the NOUN – NON negates the ADJECTIVE.

Verbal notion

Focus on the verbal notion (2/3): Leave the verbal notion as it is in order to focus on the action instead of its method/process.

Ex. Why study economics? (perché studiare) instead of How TO study economics? (come si compie il processo di studiare) – TO: passage from theory to practice.

Word formation

Affixation: Affixes and prefixes are added to words in order to create new derivates.

Ex. Unhelpful.

Conversion: Use the same word for different grammatical functions.

Ex. I love (verb) music - My love (noun) for music.

BUT some words are pronounced differently: record, object, import…

Word compounding: Put words together by removing the space in between or by using the hyphen.

Ex. Snowball

Ex. I don’t like his I-don’t-care attitude

The ING form

According to Halliday, the ING form (both gerund and present participle) can replace:

• Relative clauses. Ex. Who is the man that is talking to the waiter? Who is the man talking to the waiter?
• Time / manner adverbial subordinate clauses. Ex. While I was reading the menu, I found that… Reading the menu, I found that…
• Subordinate clauses with subject mentioned. Ex. When the judge entered, the trial began. The judge, having entered, the trial began

Present participle: [in italiano si traduce con gerundio o participio presente (-ante) – simile ad un aggettivo nella forma BE+ING]

Gerund: [in italiano si traduce con l’infinito – simile ad un nome]

It can be used:

• As SUBJECT. Ex. Repairing computers is their favourite pastime [riparare computer]
• As OBJECT. Ex. I…