Appunti lezione di Letteratura inglese su Shakespeare

Scheda 6

Medieval background of English literature up to the Wars of the Roses

The medieval period of English literature developed within a society shaped by constant political change, religious authority, and evolving social structures. This period begins after the end of Roman rule in Britain and continues until the conclusion of the Wars of the Roses (15th century). Throughout the Middle Ages, literature reflected the power of the Church, the feudal system, and major intellectual and religious divisions that influenced English cultural life.

In the early Middle Ages, Anglo-Saxon England produced literature in Old English, rooted in oral tradition. Heroic poetry celebrated values such as courage, loyalty, and honour, while Christian belief increasingly shaped its moral outlook. Works like Beowulf combine pagan warrior ideals with Christian themes. Religious learning was centred in monasteries, where monks copied manuscripts and preserved knowledge. Important figures of this period include Caedmon, an early religious poet; Cynewulf, whose poetry expressed personal Christian faith; and Bede, a scholar and historian whose writings helped shape English intellectual identity.

Religion dominated medieval life, but it was not without conflict. England was part of the Western Christian Church, under the authority of the Pope in Rome. Tensions between spiritual and political power were common, especially between the monarchy and the Church. Although the major division between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches (the Great Schism of 1054) did not directly involve England, it contributed to wider debates about religious authority in medieval Europe. Later, criticism of Church corruption led to reform movements. In England, John Wycliffe challenged Church wealth and authority in the fourteenth century and promoted the translation of the Bible into English. His ideas influenced both religious thought and the development of English prose.

The Norman Conquest of 1066 marked a turning point in English society and literature. Norman rulers introduced French culture, law, and language. For centuries, England became linguistically divided: Latin was used for religion and learning, French for the ruling class, and English for ordinary people. As a result, English literary production slowed but gradually absorbed French vocabulary and literary forms, especially romances and courtly narratives. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Middle English re-emerged as a respected literary language. Writers began to address a broader audience, including the growing urban middle class. Literary forms expanded to include religious allegories, romances, lyrics, and social satire. Notable writers include Layamon, who helped revive English literary tradition, and the anonymous author of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, whose work reflects chivalric values and moral testing.

The fourteenth century represents the high point of medieval English literature. Geoffrey Chaucer, often called the father of English poetry, used Middle English to portray a wide range of social classes in The Canterbury Tales. His work shows the influence of European humanist thought and increasing interest in individual character. At the same time, William Langland’s Piers Plowman criticised social injustice and corruption within the Church, while John Gower focused on moral responsibility and political order. The later Middle Ages were marked by deep social and political unrest. The Black Death reduced the population dramatically, weakening the feudal system and increasing demands for social reform. These changes influenced literature, which became more critical and realistic. The Wars of the Roses (1455–1485), a dynastic conflict between the Houses of York and Lancaster, ended the medieval period in England. With the fall of feudal nobility and the rise of stronger central authority, English literature stood on the threshold of the Renaissance.

After the peasant's revolt Richard II imposed heavy taxes and ignored the parliament, but the Duke of Lancaster ended up uprising, becoming Henry IV (his son, Henry V, is one of the most known kings of English history). His son believed he had a right to the French throne so he renewed the war against France, England won. He died in 1422 and he left his son, Henry VI, to rule, but he had mental illnesses therefore Edward, Duke of York was chosen to rule. The war between the 2 families started here (lasted 30 years). House of York = white rose as its symbol. House of Lancaster = red rose. The civil war ended when Richard III was defeated in the battle of Bosworth in 1485 by Henry Tudor, founder of the house of Tudor, who married Elizabeth of York reuniting the 2 roses.

Literature and genres

Epic poem

(Iliad and Odyssey). The epic poem is a long narrative poetical composition. It deals with the recollection of a glorious past in the national history of the country. The main theme is the nature of heroic life and the function of leadership in heroic society.

Medieval ballad

The ballad had no moral aim, it tells a dramatic story not as a consequence of events but as a series of rapid flashes. The language is simple. There is a mixture of dialogue and narration; a four-line stanza is usually used. Other than providing descriptions of real characters it also presents supernatural creatures. (Ex: Lord Randal)

Medieval narrative poem

A narrative poem tells a story in verse and contains narrative elements (setting in time and place, descriptions of characters and the use of narrator, usually in 1st person) they had the purpose of entertaining and instructing. It provided an insight into individual characters in regard to their lifestyle, their psychology etc… The greater example is: Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, a long poem framed by a general prologue.

Geoffrey Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer (1343): he went to war in France; even though he came from a middle class background he had close relations with the royal family. He was politically active. Starting off in 1386 he started writing Canterbury Tales. When he died he was buried in Westminster Abbey. Chaucer is regarded as the father of English literature. His language, the dialect of his native London, gradually became standard English, thus becoming the basis of Modern English.

In Canterbury Tales he was able to portray the English society at that time. His masterpiece is set in spring, it tells the story of 30 people who are going on a pilgrimage. They are travelling to Canterbury to the shrine of Thomas Becket. They meet in the Tabard Inn in London. They should tell 2 stories on the way to Canterbury and 2 on the way back, and the best ones would win a prize. In the general prologue the characters are introduced and 24 tales. The tales are usually preceded by a prologue, which introduce the theme of the tale and sometimes are followed by an epilogue. The reporting pilgrim is Chaucer himself. There is no logical order of events. Canterbury is the symbol of the celestial city, the end of life, and the journey of the pilgrims becomes an allegory of the course of human life. He represents members of the clergy and the middle classes, he doesn’t portray the aristocracy or the peasants.

The early Tudors and general info about the period

After the death of Henry VIII and the end of the war of the 2 roses, his son Edward VI became king in 1547 at the age of nine. He was highly intelligent, studied history and Protestant theology, and was strongly influenced by Protestant ideas. During his reign, major religious reforms took place as part of the Protestant Reformation: church services were conducted in English instead of Latin, and the Book of Common Prayer became compulsory under the Act of Uniformity (1549), helping to develop the English language. Edward VI died young in 1553 and attempted to name his Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, as successor, but she was overthrown after only nine days and imprisoned in the Tower of London.

Mary I, Henry VIII’s daughter by his first wife, then declared herself queen in 1553. She aimed to restore Catholicism in England and in 1554 married Philip II of Spain, aligning England with Spain against France. Her reign saw the restoration of Catholic rituals and heresy laws, and harsh persecution of Protestants, with around 300 burned at the stake, earning her the nickname “Bloody Mary.” She fell ill and died in 1558 and was succeeded by her sister Elizabeth.

Elizabeth I ruled England from 1558 to 1603, a period often seen as a golden age marked by stability, cultural growth, and naval success. She strengthened the Protestant Reformation through the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity (1559) and the Thirty-nine Articles (1562), while allowing some religious tolerance. Known as the “Virgin Queen,” Elizabeth chose not to marry, believing it would threaten England’s stability. She used royal progresses and official portraits to reinforce her authority and image. Her reign faced danger from Mary, Queen of Scots, whose claim to the English throne led to conspiracies; Mary was eventually executed in 1587. Elizabeth encouraged exploration and naval expansion through figures such as Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh. England’s greatest triumph came in 1588 with the defeat of the Spanish Armada, securing English supremacy at sea. Elizabeth died in 1603, naming James VI of Scotland as her successor. Remembered as a popular and powerful ruler, she left England united, prosperous, and respected.

The separation of the English Church from Rome occurred during the reign of Henry VIII and marked the beginning of the English Reformation. While the immediate cause was Henry VIII’s desire to secure an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the break with Rome was the result of a complex interaction of political, religious, and economic factors. The Pope’s refusal to grant the annulment led Henry to challenge papal authority in England. Through a series of parliamentary statutes known as the Henrician Reformation, the most significant of which was the Act of Supremacy (1534), the king was declared Supreme Head of the Church of England. This legislation formally ended the jurisdiction of the Pope in England and transferred ecclesiastical authority to the Crown, fundamentally altering the relationship between church and state.

Despite the institutional break with Rome, Henry VIII remained largely conservative in doctrine. Traditional Catholic beliefs and practices were maintained, as demonstrated by the Six Articles (1539), which reaffirmed key Catholic teachings such as transubstantiation and clerical celibacy. However, the separation enabled significant structural changes, most notably the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536–1541). This process redistributed monastic wealth and land to the Crown and the gentry, strengthening royal finances and securing political support for the Reformation.

The long-term consequences of the separation became more apparent under Henry’s successors. Under Edward VI, England moved decisively towards Protestantism, while Mary I attempted to restore Catholicism and papal authority. The eventual Elizabethan Religious Settlement established a moderate Protestant Church that retained elements of Catholic tradition, laying the foundations of Anglicanism.

In conclusion, the separation of the English Church was not merely a personal or religious dispute but a transformative moment in English history. It redefined sovereignty, reshaped religious life, and embedded the monarch’s authority over the Church, with lasting political and confessional consequences.

Literature and genres

Sonnet

It developed during the Renaissance (Iacopo da Lentini). The traditional theme of the sonnet is love and desire for a lady who cannot return the poet’s love, and the conflict between desire and the unhappiness caused by the impossibility of their love. There are 2 types of sonnet:

• Petrarchan/Italian sonnet: 14-line poem. It consists of an octave that presents a problem and a sestet, which solves the problem.
• Shakespeare sonnet: It’s usually divided into three quatrains, that presents a theme or three arguments and a couplet in which the conclusion is drawn.

Development of drama

The origins of British theatre lie in medieval religious celebrations, particularly Christian festivals. Early performances were held inside churches in Latin and acted by clergy, but later moved outdoors, used English, and involved normal people; these became known as mystery plays. During the Elizabethan age, drama developed into the most important art form. Theatre suited a society rich in language and communal entertainment, aimed at a mixed audience more used to listening than reading.

Since public performances were banned within the City of London, theatres were built on the South Bank of the Thames and soon became successful commercial enterprises. The first permanent theatres were built by James Burbage in the 1570s. Elizabethan theatres were circular or octagonal, with galleries for wealthier spectators and a yard for poorer “groundlings.” The apron stage projected into the audience, creating close contact between actors and spectators. The stage included features such as a trap door, an inner stage, an upper stage, and a tiring house for costumes, but there was no front curtain or scenery. This theatre structure shaped Elizabethan drama.

Performances took place in daylight, with minimal props and continuous action. Soliloquies were common because of the direct relationship between actor and audience. Women did not act; female roles were played by boys, and acting companies worked as permanent groups. Elizabethan playwrights drew inspiration from many sources, including medieval traditions, Italian theatre, Commedia dell’arte, Machiavelli, Greek tragedy, and especially the Roman writer Seneca. Common themes included revenge, ambition, corruption, and the instability of fortune. A typical example is Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy, a Senecan revenge play featuring ghosts, violence, intrigue, and the innovative device of a play within the play.

Shakespeare in general

Shakespeare’s sonnets were published in 1609, though most were probably written in the 1590s and originally circulated privately among friends and patrons, especially the Earl of Southampton. The collection contains 154 sonnets written in iambic pentameter. Shakespeare adopted a new sonnet structure made of three quatrains followed by a final couplet, instead of the traditional Petrarchan octave and sestet. However, many sonnets still show a turning point in thought around the ninth line or in the closing couplet.

Shakespeare’s sonnets reverse conventional love-sonnet themes: idealised praise is directed at a young man, while poems about a woman are often critical and unconventional. The sonnets explore universal themes such as time, love, beauty, death, and art, offering a deep psychological analysis of human emotions. Stylistically, the sonnets use vivid and expressive language with few classical references, creating a sense of immediacy. Their dramatic and conversational tone, marked by direct address and rhetorical questions, reflects Shakespeare’s experience as a playwright.

Shakespearean plays develop through a gradual revelation of meaning. Mysteries, themes, and assumptions introduced at the beginning only become clear later, and seemingly minor details often prove crucial. The plays alternate between different types of scenes—public and private, crowded and intimate, action-filled and reflective. Major events are framed by shorter scenes that provide information, and some questions are deliberately left unresolved. Shakespeare did not follow the Aristotelian unities of time, place, and action, resulting in a flexible structure. Acts were of little importance in performance, as Elizabethan theatre had no curtains or intervals. Scenes usually ended when all characters left the stage.

Close contact between actors and audience allowed for conventions such as soliloquies, asides, prologues, choruses, and final speeches. Stage directions were minimal and often added later by editors. Instead, Shakespeare embedded directions within the dialogue, using metaphors or questions to convey mood and action, encouraging the audience’s imagination. His plays include characters from all social classes, though hierarchy is central. Family relationships are especially important and frequently show conflict between generations. Shakespeare also used symmetry, such as pairs of lovers, brothers, or rival families.

Shakespeare’s style is highly varied, mixing prose and verse, and incorporating songs, music, dances, allegory, and elements of magic. His language is rich in imagery, using metaphors, similes, sound effects, and recurring image clusters linked to the play’s themes. His vocabulary is exceptionally broad, including invented words and archaic or mythological references, and his blank verse becomes increasingly flexible and irregular across his works.

Shakespeare’s contemporary playwrights

• Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593) → Doctor Faustus, Tamburlaine
• Ben Jonson (1572–1637) → Volpone, The Alchemist
• Thomas Kyd (1558–1594) → The Spanish Tragedy
• John Webster (c.1580–c.1634) → The Duchess of Malfi
• Thomas Middleton (1580–1627) → The Changeling
• Francis Beaumont (1584–1616) & John Fletcher (1579–1625)
• George Peele (1556–1596)
• Robert Greene (1558–1592)

Contemporary poets and writers (non teatro)

• Edmund Spenser (1552–1599) → The Faerie Queene. A contemporary of Shakespeare, but mainly a poet rather than a playwright.
• Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586) → Astrophil and Stella. A contemporary of Shakespeare and a model of the courtly poet.
• Michael Drayton (1563–1631) An Elizabethan poet.

Scheda 1

Titus Andronicus, William Shakespeare (1594)

“Titus Andronicus” is one of William Shakespeare’s earliest and most violent tragedies. Set in ancient Rome, it tells the story of Titus, a Roman general, whose cycle of revenge with Tamora, Queen of the Goths, leads to betrayal, mutilation, and mass murder. The play is famous for its graphic scenes of violence—amputations, rape, cannibalism—and is often seen as Shakespeare’s experiment with the revenge tragedy genre popular at the time. Though long regarded as excessive and sensational, modern critics also recognize it as a dark exploration of vengea