Appunti corso Lingua inglese

Lingua inglese

Language e linguistics

Language = there exist several definitions, is a cultural construction and is a form of how humans communicate as a same system of symbols.

Linguistics = it studies how different people and different languages interact. There exist specific branches of linguistics. One of the most important is History Linguistics.

The language that we speak influence our unconscious. One word continues changing through time. For example, the word “pie” is a proto-Indo-European word: the same combination of symbols is evolved in many ways in the same continent. The word “slut” in origin, was a slovenly woman (sciatta, disordinata) and was a term employed at the time of Shakespeare, in the 16th century; today its meaning is more degradatory.

Language can have different definitions:

• A) As a body of words and the systems for their use, common to a group of people who share the same community or nation, geographical area, or the same cultural tradition;
• B) As a communication by voice in the distinctively human manner, using arbitrary sounds in conventional ways with conventional meanings (speech). This is a limited definition because it exclude slots of non-verbal language;
• C) The system of linguistic signs or symbols considered in the abstract, which is opposed to speech;
• D) Any set or system of such symbols used by a number of people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another;
• E) Any system of formalized symbols, signs, sounds, gestures or whatever to communicate thoughts, emotions, experiences;
• F) The means of communication used by animals; communication of meaning in any way, which medium is expressive, significant etc. (for example, the language of flowers).

Chomsky: language is a process of free creation it has principles and defined laws but the way they are used is free and infinitely variegated. Even its interpretation involves a process of free creation. This free creation influences our communication, is something involved besides verbal language how should we deal with culture-embedded languages?

Cross-cultural, multi-cultural and inter-cultural communication

Cross-cultural communication = cross- indicates action from one individual, group (etc.) to another. This kind of communication deals with the comparison of different cultures. The differences are understood and acknowledged, can lead to individual change but not bring collective transformation. In cross-cultural societies one culture is considered the “norm” and all the other are compared or contrasted to the dominant. This is a comparative approach that doesn’t consent to understand what to do to communicate with different cultures.

Multi-cultural communication = it refers to a society that contains several cultural or ethnic groups. They live alongside one another, but each cultural group doesn’t necessarily have engaging interactions.

Inter-cultural communication = the prefix “inter-“ is from the Latin, it means “between”, “among” … . it describes communities in which there is a deep understanding and respect for all cultures. It focuses on mutual exchange of ideas and cultural norms and the development of deep relationships. In this kind of society everyone grows together. The “interculturality” is the ability to experience the culture of another person and to be open minded, interested, curious about the person and its culture.

The expression intercultural communication was first used by the American anthropologist Edward T. Hall. He explains that the normal space that a person need is cultural driven also, and is considered as one’s own territory, which means if it is violated it creates an uncomfortable feeling. The amount of personal space varies depending on the place of living of the individual people that live in more populated areas tend to have smaller personal spaces. We can see this manifestation of personal space in the distance between two individuals having a conversation. Another factor of space is the body contact. He also examines how time is seen differently in cultures. In polychronic cultures time can’t be saved or restored. People take more tasks at the same time. This kind of cultures are seen as more flexible and able to change their mind more easily. People tend to consider a lot of things on the same level of importance. Italy is considered.

On the other hand, there are the monochronic cultures, as we can think about Finland, where people tend to do one task at time and concentrate their actions on that. The time is structured, and everything must be done on time. In fact, not finishing or being late is considered impolite and rude.

Culture variety factors

A high context culture is one in which the communicators assume a great deal of commonality view and knowledge, so the majority of information are deduced in the context of communication, are not explicit (Japanese, Arabs and French cultures). A low context culture is one in which things are fully spelled out. It’s more relevant the verbal communication (Germanics and Scandinavians cultures). Cultures can also be individualist or collectivist. In an individualist culture the individual uniqueness is valued. A person is admired if they are a “self-made man” or show initiative or independence. On opposite, collectivist cultures expect people to identify and work in groups, which exchange for loyalty and compliance. Many of the Asian cultures are collectivist, while Anglo-American ones tend to be individualist.

What is best to do in an intercultural communication? Surely, avoid assumptions and jokes that may be misunderstood, slangs and idioms. Use symbols, diagrams and pictures and choose word that will convey in the most specific denotative meaning, making sure that the communication is in line with the audience and using understandable language. Is important also to investigate the other culture’s perception and take cultural and local differences into account.

4 main issues in relation to intercultural discourse:

• Competence the ability to do anything successful
• Achieiving understanding when communicating
• Understanding the sense of identity
• Managing rapport - A rapport is a close and harmonious relationship where the people are “in-sync”.

Writing about the video: she sounds angry (arrabbiato in modo controllato) then peast (incazzato)

[I can’t really align with her reaction because, as I never experienced the same discrimination, I find it a bit exaggerated, but for sure she was right to be angry to him who totally ignored her identity and informations and considered her from her appearance.]

Language varieties and discourse

Linguist defining language system of conventional spoken, manual, body, or written symbols by means of which people participate as members of a social group, with the same culture. The functions are communication, expressions of identity, emotional release, play and imaginative expression. Through expressing themself people rely on society and culture. It’s also the expression of ideas, speech-sout combine into words. Words are combined into sentences and this combination is similiar of more complex thoughts ideologies. …it is important to understand the importance of power into ideologies. An ideology is

Language varieties = there are geographically different systems of communication, called dialects of a language. Dialects may impede the mutual comprehension. Sociolect refers to the speech patterns employed by a specific part of the society. Ethnolect is the language patterns employed by ethnic groups. Idiolect is the speech habit that a single person has been coined. Sometimes ethnolect becomes sociolect because some ethnicities belong to specific social classes. When we apply language studies to the intercultural communication, we usually refer to ethnolect and sociolect (?).

Linguistics, which is the scientific study of language, includes what we generally distinguish as descriptive linguistics and historical linguistic. It shows how people use language and communication, not how it should be used. It is never a matter of wrong and right. Descriptive ling. Can be divided into theoretical ling. And applied ling., which has several sub-disciplines (sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, forensic linguistics, discourse analysis).

Discourse = it is not as the Italian “discorso” as “oratorio”, it’s a false friend! It’s a philosophical category, it’s a process of understanding, reasoning, thought. From the Medieval Latin term of “discurrere” and Late Latin of “speak at length of something”. It denotes written and spoken communications such as the totality of codified language used in a given field of intellectual enquiry and of a social practice.

Quoting Foucault “discourses are systems of thoughts composed of ideas, attitudes, courses of actions, beliefs and linguistic practices that systematically construct the subjects and the worlds of which they speak”.

A discourse is related to other discourses by way of inter-discursivity.

The discourse analysis is the approach to analyse written, vocal or visual language use, or any significant semiotic event in a field (such as politics, advertising, gender, history…). An analyst studies the language use not only as the ‘beyond the sentence boundary’, but withing the occurring language he aims to reveal dynamics of power to understand the socio-psychological and socio-cultural characteristic of a person or a group through analysis of their language and linguistic choices, that shows their vision of the world. The analysis answers the questions of what the text is and is not about; how it is written, produced, and transmitted.

The discourse analyst Norman Faircough argues that the ability to understand how language functions in crucial to understand society, culture, and people. A conscious engagement of language is necessary to understand dynamics of power, persuasion and how people live and interact together.

Stereotypes in intercultural communication

Fields such as sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic drawn attention to other functions for language: it expresses a national identity; important functions are seen in imaginative and symbolic contexts that represent the culture (poetry, drama, music...). culture, besides the language, is the totality of religion, clothes and dressing, food, folk art, manners, celebrations, medical cure … it’s both verbal and physical communication. There exist stereotypes (ideas without a proof, generalization, fake representation of a specific group) about the cultures, that are internalized through language.

The first time that the word “stereotype” is recorded meaning what above, is in the 1922.

Explicit stereotypes are those people who are willing to verbalize and admit. It also refers to them of which one is aware that other holds and is using to judge people.

Implicit stereotypes are those that are non-verbally expressed but are seen through body gestures or ideas. They lay on individuals’ sub-consciousness, that they have no control or aware.

Stereotypes are related to prejudice and discrimination; they can develop simultaneously or one after the other. Stereotypes are cognitive and occur without consciousness awareness, they reflect expectations and beliefs about a group, while prejudice is the effective component, and comes before our judgement without knowledge, it is an emotional response. Discrimination is a mixture of both and is the action in the reality. The discrimination is the most serious about the three of them.

The consequences are that stereotypes lead to racial, sexual, and homophobic prejudice, and the discrimination takes to emotionally react to the stereotyped beliefs. Other are A) justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance; B) unwillingness to rethink one’s attitudes and behaviour, because you are so convinced of it that never question it or yourself; C) preventing some people of a stereotyped group from entering a succeeding activities or fields.

Racism is the most relevant consequence. It’s a discrimination reserved to someone who is member of a specific ethnical group, and whenever we think about racism we compare “us” to “them”. It is not a one-sided phenomenon. There are different kinds of stereotypes. For example, the American police view groups differentially because of racial profiles (Latinos as drug-dealers, criminals), while the Asian are seen by Americans as shy, intelligent, and cold.

Context is important because it determines the interaction.

Collocation: natural qualification – it’s a linguistic word.

Case study: heritage

Case study: keyword is “heritage”.

In the case analysed, the rhetorical text, the She refers to her natural hair as cultural heritage heritage is the total of features belonging to the culture of a society, such as traditions, languages etc. that were created in the past and still have an historical importance. It is something that people really feel and want to preserve. They represent where one’s from, it’s his history. For a minority even more important maintaining the heritage. Other important words are “opportunity” “beautiful” and “natural/native”. Afro hair doesn’t fit the beauty standards of Europeans/Americans, and it results in an oppression of the features of black people especially women. The stereotype is that such hair is dirty, and must be “corrected” to fit a more acceptable idea of hair. For auntied black person realizing this unrealistic situation is very important to not feel somehow wrong, and in the text, Lupita condemns the decision of the magazine to edit out her natural hair, as a form of suppression of something natural that doesn’t fit a white-centred standard. She insists on referring on her hair as a beautiful heritage, something to be proud of (and really is). The beauty discussed activate a contrast between Us and Them. Native is something you were born with, it’s an important word because it means the woman embraces what she is given.

The argument (argomentazione, discussione) is about the body, in fact there are different words that refers to the body semantic field, and to accept it and fight against the discriminations and stereotypes about natural features and bodies it’s a powerful message, especially directed to the ones that don’t know, children (she recognizes that she suffered as a child from this standards). It is also about otherness.

Georg Simmel “the Stranger and the Sociology of Knowledge”. It’s an article about the sociological construction of stranger(?). A stranger (estraneo) is someone that is not familiar or known in the context. For Simmel otherwise a stranger is a member of the group but is distant from the other members. This kind of distance has to do with the “origin”, heritage. In fact, they are considered not belonging to the group even if they are in constant relation to other members of the group they are in the group but part of it. “The stranger” of A. Camus, is about a foreigner (straniero) that is also a stranger, it’s not recognized as a “normal” because he doesn’t behave as expected, he doesn’t fit it. The concept of “normality” in language is very arbitrary

The linguistic sign

Humans have the capacity to create sign that mediate between them and the environment. A sign is formed by a SIGNIFIER (significante) and a SIGNIFIED (significato). Linguistic signs are the non-arbitrary reality words stand for. Words non-arbitrary are the ones that reproduce sounds, the onomatopoetic words. They are not the same across all the languages, they tend to conform to the …. They are part of. Language reproduces the sounds according to the culture.

The meaning of the meaning.

The arbitrary can be studied also starting from different context.

Denotative meaning: the word reproduces something from reality; connotative meaning: what is associated to the word, to that reproduction of reality. It’s about the topic.

Idiom/idiomatic expression: Group of words established by usage as having a meaning, categorized as a formulaic language (es. over the moon), a figurative meaning different from the literal meaning. In English there are about 25000 idiomatic expressions, most of them come from the influence of Shakespeare. Orwell called these expression as “ready-made”, “Avere il prosciutto sugli occhi = can’t see the wood for the trees.” referring to the histo